Algeria

ALGERIA, a country in North Africa under French domin ion, bounded west by Morocco, north by the Mediterranean, east by Tunisia, and south by Italian Libya and French West Africa. North Algeria has an area of 2o7,915sq.km. between 37° and 34° N. lat. and 2° i o' and 8° 5o' E. long. ; it is i , i ookm. long east to west, and 300-40o north to south, and so has the form of a narrow rectangle. The Saharan areas adjacent to Algeria have formed a separate administrative unit, the Southern Territories, since 1902; their area is 2,129,400sq.km., more than ten times that of North Algeria. The southernmost point in these Southern Territories, Tin Zaouaten, 20° N. lat., is 1,75okm. from Algiers, while from the ocean to Tripolitania is about r,800km. This immense area is, however, almost empty, and poor in resources at present utilizable, and it is a mere adjunct of the northern or true Algeria.

Physical Geography and Divisions.

The fundamental units, based mainly on climate, are the Tell, an area of trees and cultivation, the Steppe, with grasses and pastoral life, and the Sahara without water or trees save in oasis centres of irrigation. These are not continuous zones of constant breadth; there are wooded and cultivable patches in the Steppe and the Sahara, and arid patches in the Tell. Algeria is mainly highland, with mountain chains forming its borders and the steps of the main slopes. One must cross these mountainous borders to reach either the Mediterranean or the Sahara from the high interior, formed of mountain ridges and masses, and of plateaus or high plains with mild undulations. The highest points are Chelia (2,329 metres) in the Aures and Lalla Khadidja (2,308 metres) in Kaby lia, but the average elevation is about 90o metres and 68% of the area lies between Boo and i,600 metres. Low plains cover only small areas near the coast in a few spots, but the coast generally is closely dominated by mountain lines, usually south-west–north east. The slopes are usually very sharp, interrupted only by nar row breaches. The straight coastline has few shelters and deserves Sallusts' designation of littus importuosum. A few semicircular gulfs, of Mers-el-kebir, Arzeu, Algiers, Bougie, Philippeville and Bone end westward against mountain-masses while eastward are shore deposits due to currents from the west.

Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks occupy little space save near the coast east of Algiers where they are accompanied by volcanic ex trusions. Secondary rocks, usually calcareous or marly, form the main skeleton of the Atlas chains from the sea to the Sahara. Ter tiary rocks are also highly developed and include limestones, marls, sandstones, clays. Those of Oligocene or later date include fluviatile and lacustrine, as well as marine, deposits.

The Algerian chains show two series of foldings, the Tell Atlas and the Saharan or pre-Saharan Atlas, separated by a zone which narrows from west to east and is hardly folded at all.

In Algeria, west of the meridian of Algiers and Medea, the lit toral massifs have a large tertiary depression on their south side; then comes the axial chain of the Tell Atlas with tertiary deposits to the south again. The Tlemsen-Saida massif forms the third step and belongs climatically to the Tell but structurally to the main block. Beyond this to the south is the region of steppes with tertiary basins, of which the shotts fill the remnants. Finally, the Saharan Atlas forms a ridge fronting the desert. East of Al giers the zones are much less distinct. The Kabylian Tell is much higher and rougher than the Tell of Oran, and ends in the Edough massif at Bone, the end of the Tell Atlas. Beyond this, the Saha ran Atlas with its north-eastward trend reaches the coast sepa rates the Algerian plateau from the Tunisian Sahel, with its tabular structure and its numerous small chains in the eastern part of the department of Constantine.

The North Sahara is built very simply. The Ahaggar, or cen tral Tuareg massif, is made up of crystalline rocks surmounted by extinct volcanoes (Ilamane, 2,200 metres). Around it are the sandstone plateaus called the Tazili of the Azjer and the Muydir Ahmet. A great aureole of calcareous Cretaceous plateaus (Tade mayt, El-Golea, M'zab) separates the northward sloping Ighar ghar basin from that of the Saoura which slopes southward. The first has the oases of Warqla, Wad-Rir and the Zibans, the second those of Gurara, Tuat and Tidikelt. Vast dunes, the eastern and western Erg, complete the symmetry.

Climate and Hydrography.

In winter, westerly and south erly winds with rains come in from the west Mediterranean regions of low pressure. In summer the winds are from the east and north-east, and the air moves towards the superheated Sahara and is dry. The sirocco is a south wind that dries up the country. Ori the coast the winter temperature averages 50°-54°, the summer one i5°-79°, but the long duration of unvarying summer heat, accompanied by moist atmosphere, makes the summer very try ing. Away from the sea continental conditions are very marked with strong radiation in a dry atmosphere. Average winter temperature here is 39°-43°, with much frost; summer tempera ture averages 79 °-83 ° with average maxima near 95° or even io5° in the Sahara. Rainfall diminishes from January to August and increases from September to December. From June to Sep tember very little rain falls.

A zone from Dellys to the Tunisian frontier with coastal mas sifs gets more thpn 800mm. of rain (Bougie 1,036mm.). A zone along the coast from Tenes to Dellys and thence inland south of the previous one gets 600-800mm. (Algiers, 728mm.). The Oran coast west of Tenes and the remainder of the Tell get 400-600mm. (Constantine, 589mm.). The high plateaus and the pre-Saharan Atlas get 2oo-400mm., save on a few heights (Jelfa, 38omm.). The Saharan slope of the Atlas gets less than 200MM., that is small, irregular and accidental rainfall (Biskra, 143 mm.).

Most Algerian streams are periodic, with the rains, and many diminish from their sources downwards and may lose themselves in inland basins or in the Sahara. The Cheliff is the chief river, over 7ookm. long, with an outflow varying from 3o-15 cubic metres during the rains to a few hundred litres in the dry season. The lacustrine hollows, shotts or sebkhas, are occupied by salt deposits where evaporation has reduced them. On the Saharan slopes oasis irrigation and hot sands absorb the streams as soon as they leave the mountains. The Zousfana, helped by the Guir, occasionally reaches Foum-el-Kheneg. Wadi Mia and Wadi Ighar ghar are dead rivers; fossils in fact.

Flora and Fauna.

The flora includes 3,5oo species of which soo are peculiar. Evergreen trees and shrubs predominate and the olive is the characteristic tree. The barbary fig (Opuntia Ficus indica), the agave (Agave americana) and the widespread eucalyptus are imported types. On the highlands one finds either Central European or mountain Mediterranean plants. The woods include oaks (cork oak, evergreen oak, deciduous oak) and coni fers (cedars, Aleppo pines, thuja, juniper). Regions with less than 35o mm. of rain are steppes with alfalfa (Stipa tenacissima), chih, (Artemisia herba alba), esparto grass and drinn. The limit of the steppe runs apprwdmately through Sebdu, Saida, Frenda, Tiaret, Boghari, Borj-Bu-Arrerij, Constantine and Suk-Ahras. The Saharan region has a poor xerophilous flora of peculiar species, some of which grow very rapidly after rain; the oases are char acterized by the date palm, the sand dunes and ergs have a fair number of plants, the regions of clay and boulders (Reg) less and the regions of rock (Hamada) least of all.

There are few peculiar animals. The lion has recently become extinct here, the panther and hyena are still found in the woods and a monkey (Pithecus innuus) occurs. Jackal and wild boar are very abundant and there are various antelopes (gazelles). The Saharan fauna is highly specialized; horned vipers and scorpions are fairly common.

Population. In 1931 the population was 6,553;451, with a municipal population of 6,469,896. Of this total 574,618 live in the Southern Territories giving a density of less than one per sq. km. This figure rises to 28 in the north. The indigenous element is Berber with Arab admixture physically assimilated. Physically diverse types are seen everywhere and their origins are little known. Arab invasions have had little influence on racial types but have spread Islam and Arabic language ; Berber dialects, how ever, survive in remote spots in Kabylia, Aures and Saharan oases and among the Tuaregs. The Mozabites are not an orthodox Muslim people but belong to the Ibadite or Kharejite schism. In digenous peoples number in all 5,632,663 including 565,987 in the Southern Territories, and they have increased rapidly under French rule, from less than 2,000,000 in 183o and some 3,2oo,000 in 1886. The increase now exceeds 400,000 in ten years or a dou bling in 40 years. Three-quarters of the indigenous population live in the Tell and because of security and rain, mountain lands are more peopled than the plains (contrast Europe).

The urban element in this population comprises about 6%, much less therefore than in Tunisia or Morocco, and only 3o lo calities have more than 3,000 agglomerated natives in each. Out side the towns the greatest contrast is between sedentary culti vators living in houses aggregated into villages (thaddert) sur rounded by gardens and planted woods, and nomad shepherds living in tents grouped into douars and moving about with their sheep and goats. There are also demi-nomads, living in gourbis more settled than the nomads, less fixed than the house-dwellers. A tendency exists to limit movements of nomads.

Europeans number 920,788, of whom 8,631 are in the Southern Territories. Nearly all live on the coast and in the Tell, largely in towns, though there is an important rural element. The distri bution contrasts with that of the natives for the department of Oran has 367,o9o, that of Alger 347,206 and that of Constantine 197,861. In the department of Oran Europeans occupy nearly all the cultivable land; in that of Alger they are numerous around Algiers, in the Sahel and in the Mitija ; in that of Constan tine they are sporadic.

From 1830 to 1856 the number of Europeans grew from 600 to 169,000 by immigration, but in that period deaths of Europeans were more numerous than births. Since 1856 births have been in excess, and there were 311,000 Europeans in 1876, 477,00o in 1891 and 752,000 in 1911. The increase is about ioo,000 souls in ten years. Of the Europeans in 1926 there were 657,64i French, chiefly from southern departments (Corsica, Bouches-du-Rhone, Gard, Herault, Pyrenees Orientales), and since 1896 more of the French have been Algerian born than French born. Spaniards from Murcia, Valencia, Alicante and the Balearics are numerous in the department of Oran. Italians from Sicily and Calabria occur especially in the department of Constantine. Maltese are to be found in most towns. Other Europeans are not numerous. Up to 1889 French and non-French European elements were about equal. To understand subsequent changes one must remember that many Frenchmen in Oran have married Spanish women, that any child born in Algeria is accounted as naturalized French unless he claims other nationality in the year of his majority, and that Jews, some of ancient settlement, others coming from Spain in the i6th and i7th centuries, were naturalized en bloc by the Cremieu decree (187o). An Algerian people is obviously forming itself and it is becoming purposeless, as well as almost impossible, to distinguish French born from naturalized citizens.

Towns. Algiers, the capital had (1931) a total population of 257,122, with a municipal population of 246,o61 (169,257 Euro peans and 76,804 natives). Oran had a municipal population of 157,981 (125,866 Europeans), Constantine 99,595 (48,15o Euro peans), Bone 65,653 (37,231 Europeans), Bel-Abbes 42,671 (27,653 Europeans), Philippeville 46,399 (23,173 Europeans), Mascara 30,122 (13,403 Europeans), Mostaganem 26,839 (12, 776 Europeans), Tlemsen 44,094 (11,653 Europeans), Setif 3 2 ,3 6 2 (9,907 Europeans). The oases of the Sahara often have an urban character, e.g., Biskra (22,273), Tidikelt-Hoggar (12,694), Ghar daia 01,415), El-Oued (10,616), Laghwat (6,264)• Administration. Algeria is neither a colony in the usual sense, nor a simple aggregate of French departments; it has not complete autonomy, yet it ir not entirely assimilated to France. A governor-general of Algeria, appointed by the minister of the interior, is helped by a general secretary and a council. Algeria is represented in the French parliament by three deputies for each of its three departments and by senators. It also has two local assemblies. The financial delegations are an assembly on which colonials elect 24, non-colonials 24, and Muslim natives 21 mem bers, with a special Kabyle section in the last group. The Con seil superieur is made up of elected and official elements. These two assemblies vote the local budget instituted by law in 19oo to permit Algeria to raise revenue in the usual ways, including ex cise and monopolies, and leaving Algeria responsible for its debts, administration, public works and so on, subject to control and veto of the French Government. France pays the military and naval expenses but Algeria paid a war contribution of 6% of its budget. That budget is now about i,000 million francs, and has usually shown a surplus. Fiscal schemes are based on those of France, and taxes are the smile for Europeans and natives.

Northern Algeria has three departments (Oran, Alger, Constan tine), divided into arrondissements which include communes de plein exercice with administration on French lines, and communes mixtes with natives in large numbers. The latter divisions are often large and are under special administrators, each has a munic ipal council helped by native sheikhs, caids or aghas. Natives elect representatives on all local assemblies.

The Southern Territories, with a separate budget, were created by decree of Dec. 24, 19o2; they are named Ain-Sefra (capital same name), Ghardaia (capital Laghwat), Tugurt (capital same name) and the Oases (capital Warqla). At the head of each is a military commandant acting under the governor-general, and each is divided into circles, annexes, "communes mixtes" and na tive communes. Old Arab taxes have been continued and order is guarded by meharist camel corps, forming the Saharan com panies.

Algiers has a university with faculties of law, medicine, science and letters which have produced much research in science, history, archaeology, linguistics, law and medicine, especially relative to North Africa. Primary and secondary schools for Europeans are on French lines. Most natives do not go beyond the primary school but there are higher schools, called Medersas, for Muslim functionaries. The knowledge and use of French has spread very widely among the natives.

Landed Property.

The absence of large empty areas and the rapid occupation of reserves have created problems. Land was distinguished as melk, private property often unenclosed, save in Kabylia, and arch, tribal land owned by the sovereign for the use of the tribe. In 1863 the tribes were declared proprietors of the lands they had been using, and their delimitation and their division between the various douars was ordered with a view to division among individual members of these lesser groups. The last step was not taken and a Warnier law (1873) renewed the effort, but defective administration made another law necessary in 1897, and still another one (Aug. 4, 1926) now controls this task which it is so difficult to carry through without revolutionizing native society. Public and private state domains amount to 5,114,000 hectares, communal lands and zones of transit 4,153,000 hectares, European private property 2,400,000 hectares, affranchised private property of natives 1,813,000 hectares, melk lands 4,647,000 hec tares, arch lands 2,767,000 hectares.

Free grants of land, with obligatory residence, have been the rule save under the Second Empire. Four modes of transfer are recognized by the decree of Sept. 13, 1904, namely, sale at a fixed price at public office, the usual method, sale by auction under public control, sale by private treaty and free concession. A decree of Sept. 9, 1924, has lengthened the period of obligatory residence from ten to 20 years, and the period during which the lands may be transferred only to French colonists from 20 to 4o years. The proportion of colonization land reserved to Algerians has been in creased from one-third to one-half. Of 2,400,000 hectares of colonization land 7oo,000 have passed into European hands by private purchase, the remainder being occupied by official coloni zation. There are 600 European agricultural centres, 230,000 agriculturists, 90,00o proprietors. Official colonization has nearly come to an end, and can do little more than develop communi cations and build new hamlets at spots reached by them.

Agriculture.

Cereals are the chief crop occupying 3,000,000 hectares ; native methods are very primitive, but Europeans, by preparatory work and by scientific dry farming, have much in creased the yields, which, however, vary greatly with the rainfall. The yields of soft wheat are two million quintals from Europeans and 600,000 from natives, of hard wheat two million quintals from Europeans and four from natives, of barley one and a half million quintals from Europeans and six and a half from natives. Oats, maize and sorghum (bechna) are less important. The vine has been the chief plant cultivated by Europeans since the phylloxera ruined the vineyards of South France and made the vine growers go to Algeria. Vines occupy 201,000 hectares (Oran 1o8,000, Alger 77,000, Constantine 16,000) . There are vineyards of the plains, of the hillsides and of the mountains and yields of wine vary greatly. Phylloxera has ravaged the Algerian vineyards which were reconstituted with American plants. Eight to ten million hectolitres of wine are produced on the average each year and the great market for this product is France. The olive is widespread and its products are used by the natives. Of six million grafted olive trees, three million are in Kabylia and four million belong to natives. The average production is 300,00o quintals of oil. Figs, oranges, apricots and almonds are also grown. The cultiva tion of early products owes much to the mildness of winter along the coast, and peas, beans, artichokes, tomatoes, potatoes and grapes are grown near the export harbours. Tobacco crops cover 32,000 hectares and produce 300,00o quintals of leaves, Kabylia being the chief centre of this recent development. About half the tobacco belongs to natives; part is exported, part manufac tured locally. Plants for perfumery are grown near Algier. Ex periments in cotton growing were made during the American Civil War (9,00o quintals ginned cotton) and renewed since 1906 in the Cheliff valley. In 1926 this crop covered 6,700 hectares (Oran 4,000) and produced 47,000 quintals gross, yielding 13,000 quintals of ginned cotton. There are about i,000 irrigation schemes, watering more than 200,000 hectares and using both barrage source lakes and barrage collecting reservoirs. More are being built, especially in the Cheliff valley. In the Southern Terri tories there are about four and a half million date palms (900,000 in Wad Rir) and the digging of artesian wells is extending areas of cultivation and revivifying old oases that had decayed.

Stockraising is important with eight to nine million sheep, four million goats, one million cattle, 200,000 horses, 300,00o asses, 150,000 mules and i5o,000 camels, the camel being used as a pack animal on the steppes and more especially for riding in the Sahara. The sheep suffer from drought, cold and parasitic dis eases; about one million are exported every year, chiefly for meat. Wool production is small, less than 18,000 tons.

Forests occupy three million hectares, but much of this is mere scrub. Fires and trespass of flocks are the great enemies of the forests. 200,000 quintals of cork are produced. Alfa covers four million hectares and gives 1,5oo,000 quintals for paper-pulp. The dwarf-palm yields 500,000 quintals of fibre.

Minerals.

Algeria (Jebel-Kuif near Tebessa) with the even richer Morocco and Tunisia together lead the world for produc tion of phosphates of lime, yielding more even than U.S.A. Al geria's share is 800,000 tons. Iron ores (1,600,000 tons) are of good quality and are found near the Tunisian frontier (Wenza, Bu-Kadra), in the Miliana region (Zaccar, Ruina) and on the Oran coast (Beni-Saf) ; they are mostly sent to England. Zinc (40-50 thousand tons) and lead are found in several places. Con stantine is the richest of the departments in mineral products. Prospecting for mineral oil at Ain-Zeft (Dahra) and at Messila (south of Relizane) has yielded poor results and there is but an insignificant coalfield at Kenadsa in the south of Oran. Algeria therefore exports its minerals in the crude state, but their extrac tion has caused railway developments, the growth of centres of population in districts previously empty, and traffic at the ports.

Industries.

Native industry cannot compete with European, but efforts have been made to keep up the traditional carpet weaving. European industries include those dependent on crops e.g., oil mills, distilleries and flour mills, also the making of leather, tobacco and matches, and some salting establishments. None is very highly equipped.

Communications.-4,345km.

of railway, partly 1.44m., partly i.o5m. gauge, are in use and are worked partly by the P.L.M. rail way of France and partly by the railway company of Algerian State railways. A central line goes from the Moroccan to the Tunisian frontier and has branches to the ports of Beni-Saf, Oran, Arzeu, Mostaganem, Tenes, Algiers, Dellys, Bougie, Philippeville, and Bone, as well as southward to Ras-el-Ma, Colomb-Bechar, Kenadsa (77okm. from Oran), Tiaret, Jelfa, Aumale, Tugurt (543km. from Philippeville), Khenchela and Tebessa. An ex cellent network of roads supplements the railway. A trans Saharan railway has been proposed, and automobiles now work in the Sahara.

The ports of Algiers (2,642,000 tons cargo and 2,560,000 tons shipping), Oran (2,215,00o tons cargo and 3,308,00o tons ship ping), Bone (1,272,00o tons), Philippeville (294,000 tons) and Bougie (250,000 tons) are fully equipped. Secondary ports in clude Nemours, Beni-Saf, Mostaganem, Cherchell, Jijelli, Collo, and La Calle. By a law of 1889 only French ships may trade between France and Algeria.

Commerce.

Since 1867 there is complete reciprocity between France and Algeria in customs dues, and trade consists of the sale of Algerian agricultural products and the importation of manufactured goods, metals, coal and produce of other colonies. Wine, oil, cereals, sheep, wool, iron ore and phosphates are ex ported. Imports for 1926 were worth 3,553 millions (France's share 2,849 millions), and exports 3,129 millions (France's share 2,269 millions). Algeria comes next after Great Britain, Belgium and U.S.A. as a customer of France.

du Service Geographique de l'Armee ; Algerie a a 1/200.00o et a 1/5oo.000, Sahara a i/r.000.000. —Carte Geologique de l'Algerie a 1/ 800.000 (lgoo) ; id. a (45 sheets have appeared) ; Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Algeria; Augustin Bernard et R. de Flotte de Roquevaire, Atlas d'Algerie et de Tunisie (in course of publication) . Periodicals: l'Afrique Frantaise, Bulletins of the Societes de Geographie d'Oran et D'Alger.—Battandier et Trabut, L'Algerie (1898) ; Jean Brunhes, L'Irrigation dans l'Afrique du Nord et dans la Peninule Iberique (1899) ; Augustin Bernard et Ficheur, Les Regions Naturelles de l'Algerie (1902) ; Thevenet, Essai de Climatologie algerienne (1904) ; Augustin Bernard et N. Lacroix, L'Evolution du nomadisme en Alggirie (1906) ; H. de Peyerimhoff, Enquete sur les resultats de la Colonisation Officielle en Algerie (1906) ; Bertholon et Chantre, Recherches anthropologiques sur la Berberie Orientale (1912) ; V. Piquet, Les civilisations de L'Afrique du Nord, (1917) ; Brunel, La colonisation francaise en Algerie (Congres de l'Organisation Coloniale, Marseille, 1922, t. 77) ; E. F. Gautier, Structure de l'Algerie (1922) and Le Sahara (1923), Les territoires du Sud (1923, 3 vol.) (I vol. bibl.) ; V. De Montes, L'Algerie Economique (in course of publication) ; Docteur R. Maire, Carte Phytogeographique de l'Algerie et de Tunisie, 1926; Guides bleue: Algerie-Tunisie (geographical introduction by M. Larnaude and bibl.), Expose de la situation generale de l'Algerie (annual) ; Documents Statistiques sur le commerce et la navigation de l'Algerie (annual) . (A. BE.)