GAME RESERVES. The great forest areas of Sussex and Hampshire, preserved by the early Norman kings, may be regarded as one of the forerunners of the modern game reserve. The game, however, was in this case preserved solely for hunt ing purposes, and not, as in the modern reserves, preserved for the sake of the game itself. Game preservation for the sake of sport has been carried on in Europe for many hundreds of years, but it is only comparatively recently that the idea of the modern game reserve has been evolved. These reserves are seen at their best in North America, Africa and the Far East. Canada and the United States are at present well ahead of the rest of the world in game preservation, but the reserves of Africa, the Malay Peninsula, and Australia are not far behind those of the New World in importance and organization. In Canada there are 13 areas put apart as national parks, comprising a total area of 8,90o sq.m., and in the United States some 8,456 sq.m. are devoted to this purpose. In addition, some 45,500 sq.m. are set aside in Canada as reserves. These national parks are visited by large numbers of people and the financial support thus obtained is very considerable. The game reserves of Africa and other parts of the Old World, where game still abounds, are not supported in a similar fashion, since the number of European visitors to the reserves is limited. The most popular of the African reserves is the new national park of the dominion of South Africa, known as the Kruger National park; this reserve is attracting a large number of visitors and its popularity is steadily increasing. The Kruger National park had its origin in a game sanctuary founded by President Kruger in 1898; it was then known as the Sabi reserve, occupying the country between the Crocodile and Sabi rivers near the boundaries of Portuguese East Africa. After the South African War this area was considerably enlarged, the reserve extending from the Croco dile river in the south, all along the Portuguese boundary to the Limpopo and the Rhodesian border in the north, and from the Portuguese boundary in the east nearly as far as the Drakens berg in the west, a total area of Zoom. by 6o miles. In 1926 the Union Government decided to make this reserve into a national park where the fauna of the country may be preserved for all time. The extent of this park as it exists to-day is about 220M. by 4om., the park extending from Komatipoort in the south along the Portuguese East African border to the junction of the territories of the Union, Rhodesia, and Portuguese East Africa on the Limpopo. Elephants are still to be found in this reserve, inhabiting the country around the Letaba and Tendi rivers, the animals wandering as far north as the Shingwedsi, and southwards to the Olifants rivers. In addition, considerable numbers of migrants from Portuguese territory have latterly made their appearance between the Shingwedsi and Limpopo rivers. A few specimens of the black rhinoceros (Rhinoceros [Diceros] bicornis) remain, and giraffe are reported to be in creasing in numbers. Zebra, eland, kudu, roan and sable antelope, waterbuck, impala, Reedbuck, bushbuck, duiker, steinbuck, klip springer and blue wildebeest are also to be met with within the confines of the park. In addition warthogs and bushpigs are found in all suitable localities and the hippopotamus lives in all the larger rivers. Buffaloes, which in 1902 were represented by only about a dozen individuals, are now fairly numerous in the area between the Sabi and Crocodile rivers. The number of lions is steadily decreasing and the leopard is getting, year by year, a rarer animal. The reserve also serves as a sanctuary to a great variety of bird life.
Similar reserves exist in Zululand, where in the Umfolozi reserve the Southern white rhinoceros (Rhinoceros simus simus) has its last home. In the Mkuze reserve the Nyala (or Inyala) is found in fair numbers, together with impala, kudu, waterbuck, and other large and medium-sized antelopes. In these Zululand reserves it has been suggested that the shortage of food supply, which has had a very serious effect on certain species, was due in part to the presence of vast numbers of zebra and blue wilde beest (or brindled gnu) ; possibly the shooting of the larger carnivora within the reserves has upset the balance of nature.
In Northern Rhodesia there are three game reserves (I) Mweru Marsh reserve (2,500 sq.m.) ; (2) Kafue reserve (3,500 sq.m.) ; and the Victoria Falls reserve (8o sq. miles). The Mweru Marsh Reserve is situated between Lake Mweru and the southern end of Lake Tanganyika; it is especially designed for the pro tection of elephants. In addition, it contains hippopotamus, eland, kudu, situtunga, sable and roan antelopes, buffalo, and some of the smaller antelopes, such as duikers and oribis. Peli cans and flamingoes and many other types of bird life abound. The Kafue reserve is situated in the western half of the colony, the Kafue river running through the reserve from north to south. Elephants are occasionally found, and reports have been re ceived of the occurrence of the black rhinoceros in this reserve. The majority of the large and medium-sized antelopes found in the colony are to be met with. The Victoria Falls reserve is a narrow strip of country, about 4om. long, bordering the north side of the Zambesi river; the function of this reserve is to protect such animals as still survive in the neighbourhood of the Victoria Falls.
In Central Africa there is the newly-formed national park at Kivu, in the eastern Belgian Congo, and the Birunga volcanoes lying to the north-east of Lake Kivu have been proclaimed a sanctuary for the eastern gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringeri). Numerous other game reserves exist in Uganda, the Sudan, Kenya Colony, Tanganyika Territory and Nyasaland. In Tanganyika Territory there are II different reserves, varying in size from about 240 to 2,60o sq. miles. The most important of these is the so-called Selous reserve on the Rufiji river; this is the main elephant refuge of Tanganyika Territory. The Kiliman jaro and Meru reserves are also of importance as including much dense forest country. In the Kilimanjaro forest area, in addition to numerous elephants, there occur such animals as Abbots Duiker (Cephalophus spadix) and the black and white Colobus monkey (Colobus caudatus). This reserve occupies the high forest zones and alpine meadow areas of the mountain.
In Kenya Colony there are two large reserves, the Northern game reserve (25,000 sq.m.) extending from Nyiro, south-east of Lake Rudolf, nearly as far as Lake Baringo in the south, with an approximate width of about 6om., and the Southern game re serve occupying a large part of the Masai reserve, stretching from Nairobi in a south-easterly direction for upwards of 16om., the total area included in the reserve being about 15,00o sq. miles. In the Northern reserve a number of desert forms occur, such as Waller's gazelle or gerenuk (Lithocranius walleri) and a variety of dik-diks (Rh ynchotragus kirki, smithi, etc.) . In ad dition, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe (G. reticulata) , buffalo, eland, kudu, lesser kudu, beisa, topi, hartebeest, water buck, impalla, two forms of Grant's gazelle, Thomson's gazelle, klipspringer, Grevy's zebra, Grant's zebra, steinbuck, reedbuck and a variety of small duikers, together with a number of ostriches, inhabit this reserve. In the Southern reserve most of these forms also occur ; the giraffe is, however, the Masai type (G. tippelskerchi), the zebra, Burchell's zebra, and the oryx, the fringed-eared oryx (Oryx callotis) . Lions, leopards and cheetahs are also fairly frequently met with.
In Uganda the Semliki reserve contains elephants, buffaloes, waterbucks, kobs, and a variety of duikers. The Bunyoro game reserve contains numbers of elephants, but its area is far too limited for any real use as a general reserve. Other natural Uganda sanctuaries are the Budongo forest and Bugoma forest in Bunyoro, the Kibale and Butara forests in Toro, the sleeping sickness areas of Kabula and Mawogola on the Ankole-Masaka border, southern Busoga, and the uninhabited areas of north Bulamezi, Buruti, and north-east Singo. In the Sudan there is a large game reserve situated between the White and Blue Niles and the Sobat river. In Nigeria there are four game reserves, one in the northern and three in the southern provinces. The northern reserve is situated in the Bornu province and contains most of the game animals to be found in the northern provinces; this area contains an adequate supply of water and grazing and is sufficiently large to function as a game sanctuary. The land around certain towns within this reserve is excluded from the reserve for a radius of 5 miles. In the southern provinces the best of the reserves is bounded on the west, south, and east by the Gwate creek; the other two reserves, the Orle river re serve, and the Anambra river reserve are not so suited for the purposes of game preservation.
In Asia the principal game reserves are in the Federated Malay States, Burma, and Ceylon. In Negri Sembilan there is a reserve of 68,000 ac. situated on the Serting river. The country here is mostly low-lying with a few hills; a large part of it is covered with heavy forest and contains elephant, seladang, sambar, tapir, tiger, and large numbers of small game and birds. In Pahang there are three reserves, (I) the Krau reserve of 130,000 ac. ; (a) the Gunong Tahan reserve totalling some 360,00o ac.; and (3) the Sungei Lui reserve (42,500 acres). These reserves contain most of the species of big and small game found in Malaya except the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus). In Burma the area set aside for reserves is at present by no means extensive, but more and larger reserves will probably be formed in the near future. The five reserves are (I) the Pidaung sanctuary (2604 sq.m.) containing elephant, bison, sambar, hog-deer, tiger, leopard and bear; (2) the Kahilu reserve (200 sq.m.), containing the very rare Javan rhinoceros; (3) the Sheve-U-Daung sanctuary (81 sq.m.), which contains some specimens of the Sumatran rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis) ; (4) the Maymyo sanctuary (49 sq.m.) ; and (5) the Moscos islands (19 sq.m.), contain Sambar and a variety of smaller game ani mals and birds.
In Ceylon one of the most important reserves is the game sanctuary of the Southern province; it comprises the extreme eastern division of the Hambantota district situated between the Yala and Kumbukkan rivers. In area this sanctuary is about I50 sq.m., and the entry into it can only be obtained on permission of the forest officers. It abounds in large and small game, sambar and the spotted deer being very abundant, and elephants, leopards, bears, and pigs are also to be met with. Another type of reserve in the Southern province is the resident sportsman's reserve, which adjoins the game sanctuary on the west. During the open season it is possible for the resident sportsman (of not less than six months' residence) to shoot in this reserve on licences to be obtained from the revenue officer of the district. The game in this reserve, although increasing in numbers, is not nearly so abundant as it is in the sanctuary. A similar sportsman's reserve has been formed in the Eastern province, with an area of about 30o sq.m., bounded on the east by the sea and the west by the Uva province boundary; in the north it extends as far as the Pottuvil-Mupane road, and southwards reaches Kumbukkan Oya. Most of this reserve is bush country, with some large lagoons surrounded by park lands. Elephants are sufficiently numerous to be a nuisance to sportsmen after smaller game, and sambar and spotted deer are numerous. A sportsman's reserve is also maintained in the province of Uva ; the reserve is situated in the southern part of the province and is open to resident sportsmen only.
In India the forests are frequently divided up into shooting blocks, usually of large size, one block being reserved as a game sanctuary. The formation of large game reserves, such as exist in Africa, is not possible in India, and to a large extent the game must be protected by shooting licences and the such small sanctu aries as may be formed in the centres of the game country.
In Australia there are a great number of reserves for the preservation of native game. In Western Australia alone some 42 reserves have been formed for the protection of bird-life and the smaller marsupials. The national park of 3,349 ac. is situated at Swan View, about 14m. E. of Perth ; grey kangaroos and some of the smaller marsupials are found in this park. In Queensland there are also adlarge number of game sanctuaries, including about 40 island reser es. The national parks of Victoria, some 12 in number, serve to protect and preserve many rare birds and small marsupials. The largest of these parks is Wilson's promontory of over ioo,000 ac. and contains large numbers of the more common native animals. Mt. Buffalo is another important re serve of 2 5,98o ac. ; it contains a number of interesting birds but not many mammals. The Grampians forest is another fine sanctuary in which kangaroos and wallabies are found. These forest reserves have practically no inhabitants, but are accessible to the public by roads or tracks ; with the exception of Mt. Buffalo and Wilson's promontory, there are no hotels or rest houses. In addition to these national parks there are also about 18o reserves in Victoria, in many of which the platypus and other rare mammals thrive, and the kangaroo and wallaby find plenty of shelter in the forests. Tasmania has a fine national park of 38,50o ac. in the south-central part of the island, and over i6o,000 ac. are maintained as a game reserve in the region of Lake St. Clair, Lincoln. These two sanctuaries will ensure that the fast disappearing fauna of the island will be preserved for future generations. The national park includes the Mount Field range and adjoining country; the altitude varies from soo to 4,721 ft. above sea-level, so that the fauna and flora of this region is both varied and interesting. Among the larger mam mals Bennett's wallaby (Macropus bennetti) is to be met with on the higher levels, and the smaller Rufous wallaby inhabits the scrub. Ringtail and brush phalangers are fairly common, and kangaroo rats and marsupial mice (Dromicia) occur. These latter, on account of their small size and nocturnal habits, are not often seen. Wombats are common on the Broad river valley and on the open moors. The marsupial cats (Dasyurus) are found fairly frequently, and the Tasmanian devil and marsupial wolf (Tliylacinus cynocepltalus) are possibly also inhabitants of this area. The platypus is to be found in the lakes and the spiny anteater is also a native of the park. A large percentage of the Tasmanian birds are to be found within the boundaries, including specimens of the great wedge-tailed eagle. This national park, unlike so many of the reserves of Africa and elsewhere, is fairly easy to get to ; trains run from Hobart to National park every week-day, and in the summer months a Sunday service is maintained.
In New Zealand the national parks are chiefly maintained for the preservation of bird-life, and there are no native game ani mals. The parks are eight in number, of which the biggest are the Sounds National park, Tongariro, and Arthur's Pass. Tongariro, in the North island, is remarkable for its beautiful scenery, containing within its boundaries the volcanic peaks of Ruapshu, Tongariro, and Ngarurhoe. Another North island park embraces the volcano known as Mt. Egmont. The most famous parks in the South island are the Sounds or Fiordland, and Tasman park (9 7,80o acres) . The former park is noted for its sounds, or fiords, and the latter for the inclusion of Mt. Cook, the highest peak in the dominion. All these parks function as valuable reserves for the preservation of the native fauna and flora. The deer which have been introduced into New Zealand are not protected in these national parks, as the damage resulting from these animals is so serious that it has been found necessary to take steps to reduce their numbers.
In Africa the game reserves are usually in charge of the game warden, assisted by assistants and honorary game wardens. There are also employed a number of native scouts. The staff, in addition to looking after the reserves, have to keep the large carnivora in check; a troublesome task in certain of the East African reserves. The staff of the Game Department in Kenya Colony consists of a game warden and four assistants; in ad dition there are 39 honorary game wardens whose powers are similar to those of the game warden, the game ordinance, stating that "Game warden includes assistant game warden and honorary game warden." In certain special cases, such as permits for export of game trophies, authority is vested only in the game warden. In addition there are a number of scouts, and valuable information is often received from casual natives. Honorary game wardens also give much assistance in the Federated Malay States. (T. G. D. ) The term "game preserve," instead of "game reserve," is used in the United States. In its strictest sense it is limited to areas set aside for the protection of those species of wild mammals and birds that are defined by law or commonly hunted as "game." This is in contrast with the use of the term in England in connec tion with "shooting preserves." In its broadest sense, as here used, it is applied to Federal, State, municipal and private reservations where killing or disturbance of wild life is prohibited. True game reservations are those established primarily for the protection of wild animals or birds, but such areas as national and State parks, national monuments and military and other reservations are of almost equal importance to the wild life forms, although their protection is incidental.
Established in 1872, the Yellowstone National Park, famous for its scenic beauties, is one of the most important big-game sanc tuaries in the United States, and protection and perpetuation of its wild life is of very general interest. The elk of the park have been the subject of numerous Federal, State and other conserva tion measures. The Elk Refuge, situated near Jackson, Wyo., with a present (1929) area of 4,225 ac., was established in 1912 to provide forage in winter for a herd of about 10,000 animals largely from the park region. Facilities for the winter care of big-game animals of the Yellowstone region are also being ex tended by the acquisition of areas in Montana north of the bound ary of the park. Another example of an extensive area important in protecting wild life is found in Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska, the home of caribou and mountain sheep.
Five executive departments administer reservations on which wild life is protected, as follows : The Department of Agriculture, bird refuges and game preserves ; the Department of the Interior, national parks, reclamation and irrigation projects and certain national monuments ; War and Navy Departments, military reser vations; Department of Commerce, Afognak and Pribilof, or Fur Seal, island reservations, Alaska.
The Bureau of Biological Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the chief Federal agency studying the distribution, habits and economic status of wild life, has under its charge 8o bird refuges and game preserves. These have been established by executive orders, the first signed by President Roosevelt on March 14, 1903, and by special acts of Congress. Five of the refuges are primarily preserves for buffalo, elk, deer, mountain sheep and antelope, and include the National Bison Range in Montana, Sullys Hill Game Preserve in North Dakota, Wind Cave Game Preserve in South Dakota, Niobrara Reservation in Nebraska and the Elk Refuge in Wyoming. Two others, the Upper Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish Refuge, and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, Great Salt Lake, Utah, are of special im portance to migratory birds. Most of the other refuges were established for the benefit of non-game species. The Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture administers a number of Federal refuges for big game in national forest areas, the more important being the Wichita in Oklahoma, the Grand Canyon in Arizona and the Pisgah in North Carolina.
Most of the States, and in some instances counties or munici palities, have dedicated areas to the conservation of wild animal and bird life. These refuges range from State lands, as in Ala bama, where they are set aside as "forest reserves and game refuges," to those in some States acquired by purchase, those es tablished on private premises by contract with the owners, or, as in California, where refuge districts are defined and closed to hunting by State law. The refuge system in several States has been greatly aided by donations of private lands. More than 23 7,00o ac. have been added to the State refuges in Louisiana by gifts of private areas.
In Pennsylvania, numerous refuges ranging from 1,200 to 3,00o ac. in extent, are established in the midst of several thousand acres of State-controlled forest and other areas. Fire lanes are cleared and each refuge is marked by a single strand of wire high enough to permit free access of game. The surplus animals from the protected area restock the surrounding region. Many States in the West have designated extensive areas within Federal forest reserves as State game refuges, particularly in Wyoming, Mon tana, Idaho, Utah and California. The authority of the several States to locate refuges on Federal, State or private lands is contrasted with that of the Federal Government which is re stricted to the public domain and areas specially acquired. In a number of States authority to establish refuges by regulation has been conferred upon State game officials, and what are in effect refuges are created by law or by regulation, closing local areas to hunting or to the taking of particular kinds of game. A few States have entered a comparatively new field by acquiring areas where the public may hunt waterfowl or other game during the open season. Louisiana, since 1921, has operated Pass-a 1'Outre, a 6o,000 ac. marsh and water area in Plaquemines parish as a public shooting ground. In Utah a special area for public shooting is under operation by the State. Reelfoot lake, Tenn., and the Susquehanna flats, at the head of Chesapeake bay, Md., are in effect public shooting areas. Pennsylvania has maintained areas open to public shooting surrounding her State refuges for big game. The Adirondack region and the Catskill park in New York also may be mentioned as public hunting areas for big game.
Municipal preserves in some sections have proved highly attrac tive to wild life. Among the best known of these are Lake Merritt, at Oakland, Calif.; the preserve at Daytona, Fla.; and Cook county park, at Chicago. What may be termed "private" game preserves are virtually numberless. They may range from the premises of the farmer or landowner posted against public hunt ing, to those where extensive developments and improvements have been made for attracting bird and animal life and insuring its subsequent protection and care.
Organizations of sportsmen and conservationists, as well as interested individuals, also establish and maintain sanctuaries for wild life. The so-called "duck" clubs having shooting areas have set aside in many instances portions of their holdings as inviolate sanctuaries. The extent to which such areas have passed into private control has brought about a serious condition from the viewpoint of the unattached hunter. The acquiring of marsh and water areas by individuals or clubs has often saved such areas to the wild fowl. Warden service, feed and even water has been supplied to render these preserves attractive to waterfowl, and in some cases sustenance is provided for a much greater num ber of the birds than the members kill. At some clubs also game keepers and breeding plants are maintained that produce for libera tion more birds than are annually taken there. Private quail shooting preserves, some ranging from io,000 to 20,000 ac., chiefly on leased lands, are maintained in some States in the South.
(F. L. EA.)