Glasgow

GLASGOW, city, county, royal burgh and port, Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 401 4 m. N.W. of London by the West Coast railway route, and 47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the L.N.E.R. The valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city extends far over these. The com mercial centre of Glasgow, with the majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank of the river, which traverses the city from west-south-west to east-north-east, and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, superseding a structure of 1775. St. Andrew's suspension bridge gives access to the Green to the inhabitants of Hutcheson town, a district which is approached also by Albert Bridge, leading from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and weir. Victoria Bridge (1856) took the place of a bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345, and demolished in 1847. Then follows a sus pension bridge (1853) by which foot-passengers from the south side obtain access to St. Enoch Square and, finally, the bridge variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica Street, or Broomielaw Bridge (1835). Towards the close of the century it was recon structed and reopened in 1899, but owing to its inadequacy to cope with the constAntly increasing traffic George V. bridge, a short distance downstream, was opened in 1927. Between the two road-bridges is a bridge belonging to the L.M.S.R.

Buildings.

The municipal buildings (1889) stand on the east ern side of George Square, the heart of the city, and several addi tional blocks have been built or rented for the municipal staff. A sanitary department was opened in 1897, including a bacteri ological and chemical laboratory. Added buildings, connected with the older ones by two bridges, were completed in 1923. Up till 1810 the town council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved to the structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, now used as court-houses, and, after two further moves, the present quarters were occupied. On the south side of George Square is the General Post Office. On the west side stand the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants' House, the head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two gilds. The Royal Exchange is a fine Corinthian building. Argyll Street, the busiest thoroughfare, leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now care fully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning the pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating from 1637, all that is left of St. Mary's church, burned down in On the opposite side, at the corner of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, or prison, a turreted building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean crown tower. The only remnant of the struc ture is the tower known as the Cross Steeple.

St. Mungo's Cathedral.

The cathedral stands in the north east quarter of the city 104 ft. above the Clyde. It is a beautiful example of Early English work, impressive in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, with imperfect transepts. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal spire. The choir, locally known as the High Church, serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it forms the Lady chapel. The chapter-house, which projects from the north-eastern corner, was built in the 15th century and has a groined roof supported by a pillar. The crypt beneath the choir is borne on 65 pillars and lighted by 41 windows. The sculpture of the capitals of the columns and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite and the whole is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not a crypt, but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named from the constant dropping of water from the roof. St. Mungo's Well in the south-eastern corner was considered to possess therapeutic virtues, and in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless and handless, is faithfully accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David, prince of Cum bria, into the lands and churches belonging to the bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at that date a cathe dral had already been endowed. When David ascended the throne in 1124 he have to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick besides restoring many possessions of which it had been deprived. Jocelin (d. 1199), made bishop in 1174, was the first great bishop, and is memorable for his efforts to replace the cathedral built in 1136 by Bishop John Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is his work, and he began the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure was sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in 1197. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop, fled to France at the Reformation in 1560, and took with him the treasures and records of the see, including the Red Book of Glasgow dating from the reign of Robert III. The documents were deposited in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at the outbreak of the Revolution for safety to St. Omer, and were never recovered. This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the city. The Reformers threatened to mutilate the cathedral, but the prompt defence of the craftsmen was the means of saving it.

Excepting the cathedral, no Glasgow church possesses historical interest. This is due largely to the long survival of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters. There are several fine modern churches. St. Enoch's (178o) has a good spire (the saint's name is said to be a corruption of Tanew, mother of Kentigern).

University.

The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turn bull under a bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old quarters till far in the i9th century. The paedagogium, or college of arts, was at first housed in Rottenrow, but was moved in 1460 to a site in High Street, where Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord Hamilton (d. 1479), gave it four acres of land and some buildings. Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen acres of contiguous ground, and her son granted it a new charter and enlarged the endow ments. Before the Revolution its fortunes fluctuated, but in the 18th century it became very famous. By the middle of the i9th century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, and in 1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground had enormously increased in value and a railway company purchased it for £ 1o0, 000. In 1864 the university bought the Gilmore Hill estate and adjacent property and the new buildings (1870) were placed on the ridge of Gilmore Hill—the finest situation in Glasgow. On the south the ground falls in a series of terraces towards Kelvin grove Park and the Kelvin. On the west stand the houses of the principal and professors. The third marquess of Bute (1847 1900) gave £40,000 to provide the Bute or common hall, divided by a screen from the Randolph hall, named after another bene factor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878). The library includes the collection of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian mu seum, bequeathed by William Hunter, the anatomist, is par ticularly rich in coins, medals, black-letter books and anatomical preparations. The observatory on Dowan Hill is attached to the chair of astronomy. Exhibitions were founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of Colmonell in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of distinction to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. The governing body includes the chancel lor, elected for life by the general council, the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected triennially by the students voting in "nations" according to their birthplace (Glot tiana, natives of Lanarkshire ; Trans f orthana, of Scotland north of the Forth; Rothseiana, of the shires of Bute, Renfrew and Ayr ; and Loudonia, all others). There are so professors and some 4,500 students. The universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh unite to return three members to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women, which occupies a handsome building close to the botanic gardens, was incorporated with the university in 1893. Muirhead College is another institution for the education of women.

A number of new chairs have been founded and lectureships instituted in branches of medicine, chemistry, physics, literature and history. Extensions have been built, including a zoology building and a west wing with a War Memorial chapel, which cost about £122,000. The students' welfare scheme has been as sisted by grants from the Government and the Carnegie Trust, and some £12,000 has been spent on the erection of a pavilion on the athletic ground at Westerlands.

There are two educational endowments boards which apply a revenue of about £10,00o a year mainly to the foundation of bur saries. The Royal Technical College in George Street originated in the foundation by John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of natural philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics for working men, provided for the instruction of artisans and others unable to attend the university. In 1799 Dr. George Birk beck (1776-1841) succeeded Garnett and began those lectures on mechanics and applied science which, continued elsewhere, ulti mately led to the foundation of mechanics' institutes in many towns. In later years the college was further endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion of literature and languages. but the scope of its work is now limited to medicine (physics, chemistry and botany also). The medical school is housed in Anderson's Medical College, in Dumbarton Road. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, formed in 1886 out of a combination of the arts side of Anderson College with three other colleges, is subsidized by the corporation and the endowments board, and is especially concerned with students desirous of follow ing an industrial career. St. Mungo's College, which has devel oped from an extra-mural school in connection with the Royal Infirmary, was incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and law. The United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove Park, the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the training of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized objects.

The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar school (long housed in John Street) which was founded in the i4th century as an appanage of the cathedral. Other secondary schools include Glasgow Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls' and boys' schools endowed by the Hutcheson and other educational trusts.

Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums.—Glasgow merchants and manufacturers have been constant patrons of art, and their liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who towards the close of the i9th century, broke away from tra dition and, stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known as the "Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum is in Kelvingrove Park. Opposite it is the huge Kelvin Hall, burnt down in 1926, but rebuilt in the following year. The Institute of Fine Arts, in Sauchiehall Street, is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of modern art. There are also pictures on exhibition in the People's Palace on Glasgow Green, and in the museum at Camphill. The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which is housed in their hall in West George Street. In Bath Street there are the Mechanics' and the Philosophical Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St. Vincent Street. The Mitchell library, was moved to North Street in 1911. It is governed by the city council. Another building in this street accommodates both the Stirling and Baillie libraries ; the Stirling is particularly rich in tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Athenaeum in St. George's Place, largely concerned with evening classes contains a library and reading-room.

Charities.

The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam and opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupied the site of the archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards the close of the 18th century. It was rebuilt in 1912, and recent extensions have demolished the block containing the ward in which Lord Lister first applied his discovery of anti sepsis. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical school attached to the institution. Hutcheson's Hospital, founded by George and Thomas Hutcheson in the 17th century for poor old men and orphan boys, and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has become a very wealthy body; it is able to subsidize schools apart from the charity.

Parks and Open Spaces.—The oldest open space is the Green (140 acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely populated district. It once extended farther west, but a portion was built over at a time when public rights were not vigilantly guarded. It is a favourite area for popular demonstrations. The Kelvin burn flows through Kelvingrove Park, in the west end, and the ground is naturally terraced, while the situation is beauti fied by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with the university on its summit. The park contains the Stewart fountain erected to com memorate the labours of Lord Provost Stewart and his col leagues in the promotion of the Loch Katrine water scheme, statues of Lord Lister, Lord Roberts and Carlyle, and a war memorial. The other parks on the right bank are, in the north, Ruchill, acquired in 1891, and Springburn, acquired in 1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park, in which is laid down a nine-hole golf course, and Tollcross, acquired in 1897. On the left bank Queen's Park, occupying a commanding site, was considerably enlarged in 1894 by the enclosure of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are Richmond, acquired in 1898, Maxwell, which was taken over on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston, acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes, presented to the city in 1886 by James Dick, a manufacturer, containing "Queen Mary's stone," a point which commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the north-western district of the town 4o acres between Great Western Road and the Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens. More recent acquisitions include 200 ac. of the Balloch Castle estate (Loch Lomond park) ; the Rouken Glen, Linn, Newlands, Glenconner, Dawsholm, Ruchill and Frank field parks.

Communications.—The L.N.E.R. terminus is situated in Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) and a low-level station for Balloch, etc., used in connection with the City and District line, largely underground, serving the northern side of the town. The Central terminus of the L.M.S.R. for Carlisle, Edinburgh, etc., in Gordon Street, comprises a high-level station and a low-level station for Balloch and the Cathcart Dis trict railway, and also for the connection between Maryhill and Rutherglen, which is mostly underground. Both the underground lines communicate with certain branches of the main line, either directly or by change of carriage. The older terminus of the L.M.S.R. in Buchanan Street now takes the northern and eastern traffic and the station in St. Enoch Square serves the south-west of Scotland and Carlisle. The Glasgow Subway—an underground cable passenger line, 61 m. long, worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde twice—was opened in 1896. There are at certain points free steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying vehicles across the harbour, and there are three tunnels under the river. Steamers, carrying both goods and passengers, constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and ports on the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of Argyllshire.

Trade.—Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of pure water, account for much of the great development of trade in Glasgow. It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest predominance, which, however, has not been maintained, though several cotton mills are still worked. The leading feature in the trade has always been the manufacture of light textures. Thread is made on a considerable scale, but jute and silk are of compara tively little importance. Carpets are woven and some factories are exclusively devoted to the making of lace curtains. The allied industries of bleaching, printing and dyeing have prospered. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced in Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of James Watt, whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher, Charles Tennant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder (chloride of lime). Turkey-red dyeing was begun at Glasgow by David Dale and Gec r ge M'Intosh, and the colour was long known locally as Dale's red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be sent from Lancashire and other mills to be bleached and printed in Scottish works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the manufacture of chemicals, and the works at St. Rollox developed rapidly. Various chemical industries are prominent. Glass-making and paper-making are carried on, and there are several breweries and distilleries. Many miscellaneous industries are carried on such as clothing, confectionery, cabinet-making, biscuit making, boot and shoe making, saw mills, pottery and rubber goods. Since the days of the brothers Robert Foulis (1705-1776) and Andrew Foulis (1712-1775), printing, both letterpress and colour, has been identified with Glasgow, though less than with Edinburgh. The discovery of the value of blackband ironstone, till then re garded as useless "wild coal," by David Mushet 0772-1847), and Neilson's invention of the hot-air blast threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of Glasgow ironmasters, al though the furnaces themselves were mostly erected in Lanark shire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry was such that, in 1859, one-third of the total output in the United Kingdom was Scottish. Mild steel is manufactured and some crucible cast steel is made. In addition to brass foundries there are works for extrac tion of copper and smelting of lead and zinc. Locomotive engines are built, all kinds of builder's ironwork is forged, and the sewing machine factories in the neighbourhood are important. Boiler making and marine engine works, in many cases in direct connection with the shipbuilding yards, are numerous. Shipbuilding, indeed, is the greatest of the industries of Glasgow. Excepting a trifling proportion of wooden ships, the Clyde-built vessels are made of steel, the trade having owed its immense expansion to prompt adoption of this material. Every variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and great liners to dredging-plant and hopper barges.

The Port.—The Clyde Navigation trustees are responsible for 18 m. of the river Clyde, from Port Glasgow to Glasgow. The harbour occupies 206 acres. For the most part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total length of 8 a m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing 26 ft. can go up or down on one tide. In the middle of the 18th century the river was fordable on foot at Dumbuck, 12 m. below Glasgow and '1 m. S.E. of Dum barton. The earliest shipping-port of Glasgow was Irvine in Ayr shire, but lighterage was tedious and land carriage costly, and in 1658 the civic authorities endeavoured to purchase a site for a spacious harbour at Dumbarton. Being thwarted by the magis trates of that burgh, however, in 1662 they secured 13 acres on the southern bank at a spot some 2 m. above Greenock, which became known as Port Glasgow, where they built harbours and the first graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen years later the Broomie law quay was built, but it was not until the tobacco merchants appreciated the necessity of bringing their wares into the heart of the city that serious consideration was paid to schemes for deepening the waterway. In 1768 John Golborne advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the scour. By the building of numerous jetties, the constant use of steam dredgers, and the blasting of rock, the channel was gradually deepened, and much land reclaimed. By 1900 it hack a minimum depth of 22 ft., and, as already indicated, the largest vessels make the open sea in• one tide, whereas in 1840 it took ships drawing only 15 ft. two and even three tides to reach the sea. From 1812 to 1820 Henry Bell's "Comet," 3o tons, driven by an engine of 3 horse-power, plied between Glasgow and Greenock, until she was wrecked, being the first steamer to run regularly on any river in the Old World. When the quays and wharves ceased to be able to accommodate the growing traffic, the construction of docks became imperative. In 1867 Kingston Dock on the south side, of 5i- acres, was opened, but soon proved inadequate, and in 188o Queen's Dock (two basins) at Stobcross, on the north side, of 3o acres, was completed. In 1897 Prince's Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72 acres, was opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes and all the other latest appliances. The Rothesay dock (2o ac.) at Clydebank, opened in 1907, and the warf at Renfrew, are in cluded in the harbour. The L.M.S.R. has access to the harbour for goods and minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock, and a mineral dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank, about 32 m. below the harbour. In 1924 the provision of further dock accommodation on land acquired by the Trust between Shieldhall and Renfrew was begun. It is connected by railway lines and a road joining the new trunk road of the Glasgow corporation scheme. The shipping attains to colossal proportions. The imports consist chiefly of grain and flour, leather, tobacco, timber, oil, iron-ore, bacon and other foodstuffs; and the exports principally of cotton, jute and linen goods, yarn, coal, machinery and spirits.

Government.—By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 2889, the city was placed entirely in the county of Lanark, the dis tricts then transferred having previously belonged to the shires of Dumbarton and Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include six suburban burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area being increased from 6,111 acres to 11,861 acres. In 1912 Govan, Partick, Pollokshaws and several suburban districts were included in the city, making the total area 19,183 acres and giving Glasgow again its position as 2nd city of Great Britain in point of size. In 1925 the burgh was further enlarged by the ac quisition of parts of Renfrewshire, Dumbartonshire and Lanark shire, including the Yoker district. In 1893 the municipal burgh was constituted a county. Glasgow is governed by a corporation consisting of 113 members, including 14 bailies and the lord provost. As a county Glasgow has a lieutenancy (successive lords provost holding the office) and a court of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magistrates sitting as licensing author ity. Under the corporation municipal ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation owning the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and municipal lodging houses. In 1859 water was conveyed by aqueducts and tunnels from Loch Katrine to the reservoir at Mugdock, a distance of 27 m., whence after filtration it was distributed by pipes to Glas gow. In 1914 works were completed to raise Loch Katrine 5 ft. and to connect with it by tunnel Loch Arklet (455 ft. above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000 gallons. The two lochs to gether possess a capacity of twelve thousand million gallons. The entire works between the loch and the city were duplicated over a distance of 231 m., and an additional reservoir, holding 694,000, 000 gallons, was constructed and a dam built 14 m. west of the lower end of Loch Arklet, designed to create a sheet of water 21 m. long and to increase the water-supply of the city by ten million gallons a day. The water committee supplies hydraulic power to manufacturers and merchants. Huge gas works were opened at Govan in 1921, and a large electric generating station at Dalmar nock Bridge in 1920. By lapse of time and congestion of population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow especially, were slums and rookeries of the worst description. The munici pality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 to condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and levy rates. The work was carried out, and when the act expired in 1881 whole localities had been recreated. Under the amending act of 1881 the corporation began in 1888 to build tenement houses and lodging-houses. The powers of the improvement trustees were practically exhausted in 1896, when it appeared that the funds showed a deficiency of 423,050. Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded £593,000, and it was esti mated that these operations had cost the citizens £24,000 a year. In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with in sanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the south side of the river. The drainage system was entirely re modelled, the area being divided into three sections, each distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage. Housing conditions and unemployment were again very bad after the World War, and led to a "rent strike." The position became very diffi cult in 1925 and a Rent Commission was appointed. Among other works in which the Corporation has interests there may be men tioned its representation on the board of the Clyde Navigation Trust and the governing body of the West of Scotland Technical College. Since 1918 Glasgow has returned 15 members to Parlia ment.

Throughout the 19th century the population grew prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. In 1901 it stood at 761,709 and in 1931 at 1,088,417.

Some historians hold that the name of Glasgow comes from Gaelic words meaning "dark glen," descriptive of the narrow ravine through which the Molendinar flowed to the Clyde. But the more generally accepted version is that the word is the Celtic Cleschu, afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning "dear green spot" (glas, green; cu or ghu, dear), supposed to have been the name of the settlement that Kentigern found here when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Kentigern or Mungo ("dear one") became the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms of the city are identified with him—"Let Glasgow Flourish by the Preaching of the Word," usually shortened to "Let Glasgow Flourish." It is not till the 12th century, however, that the history of the city becomes clear. About 1178 William the Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony, and gave it a market with freedom and customs. At the battle of the Bell o' the Brae, on the site of High Street, Wallace routed the Eng lish under Percy in 1300; he was betrayed to the English in 1305 in Robroyston. Plague ravaged the burgh in 1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran, in 1544, besieged the bishop's castle, and there was a subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate).

Most of the inhabitants were opposed to Queen Mary and many actively supported Murray in the battle of Langside—the site now occupied by the Queen's Park—on May 13, 1568, in which she lost crown and kingdom. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in 1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomie law to the Cloch. The people made common cause with the Covenanters to the end of their long struggle. Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily after the battle of Kilsyth in 1645, and three years later the provost and bailies were deposed for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague and famine devastated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid a third of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores of the west and its prisons were constantly filled with rebels for conscience' sake. The gov ernment scourged the townsfolk with an army of Highlanders, whose brutality only served to strengthen the resistance at the battles of Drumclog and Bothwell Brig. The Union was hotly resented, but marked the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity. By the treaty of Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the same footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow enabled it to acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic trade. Its commerce was already considerable and in population it was now the second town in Scotland. It enjoyed a practical monopoly of the sale of raw and refined sugars, had the right to distil spirits from molasses free of duty, dealt largely in cured herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners and manufactured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol in the tobacco trade—fetching cargoes from Virginia, Maryland and Carolina in its own fleet—so that by 1772 its importations of tobacco amounted to more than half of the whole quantity brought into the United Kingdom. The tobacco mer chants built handsome mansions and the town rapidly extended westwards. With the surplus profits new industries were created, which helped the city through the period of the American War. Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow has always held a foremost place date from this period. It was in 1764 that James Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto unwork able model of Newcomen's fire (steam) engine in his small work shop within the college precincts. Shipbuilding on a colossal scale and the enormous developments in the iron industries and engi neering were practically the growth of the loth century.

See The Scottish Geographical Magazine (Jan. 1921) .