Gloss and Glossary

GLOSS AND GLOSSARY. The Greek word yXwaaa (glossa), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, tech nical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. Rhet. iii. 3, 2) . The making of collections and explanations of such yXwaaac was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled IIEpc `Oµiipov ij opeoerr€ins Kai yXwaaiwv. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian period that the yXwaaoypackc, glossographers (writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous.

Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished ; but Athenaeus the grammarian (c. A.D. 250) alone alludes to no fewer than 35. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.c. ), the elegiac poet, who was the compiler of a lexicographi cal work entitled "AraKra or FAwaaat (sometimes "AraKToc yXwaaac) . Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (early 3rd century B.e.), the compiler of FAC)ao—ac`O,unpticai. (uncommon words in Homer) ; he was succeeded by his greater pupil Aristoph anes of Byzantium (c. 26o-18o B.c.), whose great compilation IIEpc X ewv (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to have included 'Arru ai X ECS, AaKcomal yX(.7)(Taac, and the like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glos sographer of name,—Diodorus, Artemidorus (FX& o rat, and a col lection of WEIS Oa/iaprvmai.), Nicander of Colophon (FMaaac, of which some 26 fragments still survive) and Aristarchus (c. 210 the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an ar rangement of the Homeric vocabulary (Was) in the order of the books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus, who, besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicog raphy and dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations in connection with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of 'E9vcKai Was or yXc7.)acat, a work said to have been designed chiefly to support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of Homer.

Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, Ist cent. B.C.), who made collections of MEECs rpaycoSovµbvac KwµlKat, etc. ; Apollo nius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as 6 7Xwaaoypac5os. In the beginning of the 1st century of the Chris tian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and . other predecessors with FXwaaac `Oµnptxal, and a treatise IIEpi rijs `PwµalKis BcaMKrov ; Heliodorus or Hero dorus was another almost contemporary glossographer ; Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the Aft,u6w, from which Diogenianus and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably belonged. In the follow ing century one of the most prominent workers in this depart ment of literature was Aelius Herodianus, whose treatise HEpi µovi)povs MEWS has been edited in modern times, and whose 'Errcµ€pcaµoi we still possess in an abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenianus (AiEcs rravrobarr'), Julius Vestinus Twv Ilaµ4LXov 7Xwcrajw) and especially Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and whose Eclogae nomin um et verborum Atticorum has frequently been edited.

To the 4th century ,belong Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who wrote HEpi btacP6pov M EwV, a dictionary of words used in senses different from those employed by older and approved writers; Hesychius, whose AfEIK6P, has come down only in a 15th-century recension. From the 5th century date, Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria (one form of his work is the basis of Evpayayi MEEwv xpnot,uw,), Orus of Miletus (IIEpi oXva pIcvrWV XiEEwv), and Orion of Egyptian Thebes who flourished in Alexandria, c. 425.

The Compilations of Justinian.

To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries (brroµpiwaTa) on his legislation, yet indices (Zvbuces) and references (rrapa TcTXa), as well as translations (Epyrivaac Kara rr66a) and para phrases ac Els rrX6.ros), were expressly permitted, and lav ishly produced. Among the numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged X €CS `PwµaiKai or Actr LvlKai, and voµttcai (glossae nomicae), Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted ; but the authors of rrapaypa4ai, or arbµECwaECs, whether E wOEv or KEiAEPa1 are too numerous to mention. A collection of these rrapaypacai Twv raXaewv, combined with vial 7rapaypa4ai on the revised code called TA 13aanXudt, was made about the middle of the I2th century by a disciple of Michael Hagiotheodorita. The collection of these glossaries is known as the Glossa ordinaraa (3aacXLK.7.v.

In Italy, also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, and later, after the total extinction of Byzantine sway in the West, various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code and various legal treatises were produced. The series of legal glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the compilation known as the Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, the authority of which soon be came very great. For some account of the glossators on the canon law, see CANON LAW.

Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections of glosses ("glossaries") were compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (De ling. Lat. vii. Io, "tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt") and Verrius-Festus (166b. 6. "nau cum . . . glossematorum . . . scriptores fabae grani quod hae reat in f abulo") . The scriptores glossematorum were distin guished from the learned glossographers like Aurelius Opilius, Servius Clodius, Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose Tiber gloss ematorum Festus mentions (18 r a. 18).

Verrius Flaccus (who died under Tiberius), and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved many treasures of early glossog raphers who are now lost to us. He copied Aelius Stilo, author of De verborum significatu, Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philologus, the treatise De obscuris Catonis. He often made use of Varro and was also acquainted with later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the glossae asbestos. Festus was used by Pseudo-Philoxenus (see below).

In late classical and mediaeval Latin, zlosa was the vulgar and romanic, glossa the learned form. The diminutive glossula. occurs in Diomedes (426. 26) and elsewhere. The same meaning is borne by glossarium, which also occurs in the modern sense of "glossary," as do the words glossa, glossae, glossulae, glossemata, expressed in later times by dictionariurn, dictionaries, vocabularium, vocabu laries (see DICTIONARY). Glossa and glossema are synonyms, signi fying (a) the word which requires explanation ; or (b) such a word (called lemma) together with the interpretation (interpreta mentum) ; or (c) the interpretation alone.

The Bilingual Glossaries.

The bilingual (Gr.-Lat., Lat. Gr.) glossaries also point to an early period, and were used by the grammarians (I) to explain the peculiarities (idiomata) of the Latin language by comparison with the Greek, and (2) for instruc tion in the two languages. The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed, but wrongly, to Philoxenus (consul A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries (containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal, Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, etc.) ; the other (Greek-Latin) is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than the 6th century. Furthermore, the bilingual medico botanic glossaries had their origin in old lists of plants, as Pseudo Apuleius in the treatise De herbarum virtutibus, and Pseudo Dioscorides ; the glossary, entitled Hermeneuma, printed from the Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 126o, contains names of diseases.

Of Latin glossaries of the first five or six centuries of the Roman emperors few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Pla cidus. All that we know of the second of these tends to show that he lived in north Africa in the 6th century, from whence his, glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the com piler of the Liber glossarum (see below). These glosses we know from (I) Codices Romani (I 5th and 16th centuries) ; (2) the Liber glossarum; (3) the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (11th century), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the others. (Fabius Planciades) Fulgen tius (c. A.D. 468-533) wrote Expositio sermonum antiquorurn in 62 paragraphs, each containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the glossae Nonianae, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards copied for other collections. In a similar way arose the glossae Eucherii or glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum found in many mss., which are an alphabetical extract from the formulae spiritalis intelligentiae of St. Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, c. The so-called Malberg glosses, found in various texts of the Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. The antiquity and the philological importance of these glosses may be realized from the fact that the Latin trans lation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the end of the 5th century. See Jac. Grimm's preface to Joh. Merkel's ed. (185o), and H. Kern's notes to J. H. Hessels's ed. (188o) of the Lex Salica.

The Middle Ages.

During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be exclusively Latin-Latin, and in terpretations in Germanic (Old High German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. Among Celtic glosses the most important are Old Irish, and of these Bishop Cormac's and O'Davoren's have been edited by Whitley Stokes, the former also by Kuno Meyer. The origin and development of the late classic and mediaeval glossaries preserved to us can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above the line are called "interlinear," those written in the margins of the mss. "marginal glosses." Again, mss. of the Bible were often provided with interlinear literal translations. (i.) From these glossed mss. and interlinear versions glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared in the mss., with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were taken or placed at the head of each separate collection. In this arrange ment each article by itself is called a gloss; when reference is made only to the word explained it is called the lemma, while the explanation is termed the interpretamentum. In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and explained by a single word, so that we meet with lemmata in the accusative, dative and genitive, explained by words in the same cases, e.g., the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are pre served, in the late 8th century Leyden Glossary (ed. J. H. Hes sels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted from the Life of St. Martin by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and xxxv. glosses from Rufinus, and so forth. (ii.) By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in alphabetical order according to the first letter of the lemma, but still retained in separate chap ters. Of this second stage the Leyden Glossary contains traces also. (iii.) The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first letters of the lemmata. Here the names of the authors or the titles could no longer be preserved, and consequently the sources of the glosses became uncertain. (iv.) A fourth arrangement col lected the glosses according to the first two letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still earlier Cod. Vat. 3321 (Goetz, Corp. iv. I sqq.), where even many attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the Glossae affatim (Goetz, Corp. iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are alphabetized, first accord ing to the initial letter of the word and then further according to the first vowel in the word (a, e, o, u.) No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the Leyden Glossary (end of 8th century) whereas the Corpus Glossary (beginning of 8th century) represents already the fourth stage. For the purpose of identification titles have been given to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae abstrusae; glossae abavus major and minor; g. affatim; g. ab absens; g. abactor; g. Abba Pater; g. a, a; g. Vergilianae; g. nominum; g. Sangallenses.

Isidore and His Successors.

A chief landmark in glossog raphy is represented by the Origines (Etymologiae) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopaedia in which he, like Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together, and the etymological part of which (book x.) became a great mine for later glossographers. His principal source is Servius, the fathers of the church, and Donatus. Next comes the Liber glossarum, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but with all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c. A.D. 69o-75o; he has been called Ansileubus, but this name may be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book. Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon inter pretations: (I) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels, W. M. Lindsay), of the beginning of the 8th century, in Corpus Christi college, Cambridge ; (2) the Leyden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels, Plac. Glogger), in Leyden ms. Voss. Q° Lat. 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th century and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society from the ms. at Epinal; (4) the Glossae Amplonianae, i.e., three gloss aries preserved in the Amplonian library at Erfurt, known as Erfurt', Erfurt' and Erfurt', which are arranged alphabetically according to the first or the first two letters of the lemmata.

The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, who died A.D. 919. An edition of it was printed c. 1475 at Augsburg as Sale monis ecclesie Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissirnis collecte auctoribus. Its sources are the Liber glossarum, the glos sary preserved in the 9th-century ms. Lat Monac. 14429, and the Abavus major Gloss. The Liber glossarum has also been the chief source for the important (but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. Io53, who also wrote a grammar chiefly compiled from Priscian. It is also the source of (1) the Abba Pater Glossary, published by G. M. Thomas (Sitz. Ber. Akad. Munch., 1868, ii. 369 sqq.) ; the Greek glossary Absida lucida; and (3) the Lat. Arab. glossary in the Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient. No. 231 (published by Seybold in Semit. Studien, Heft xv.–xvii., 1900). The Paulus Glossary is compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (abacti magistrates), the Abavus major and the Liber glossarum, with a mixture of Hebraica.

Osbern of Gloucester (c. I I23-1200) compiled the glossary en titled Panormia (ed. Angelo Mai as Thesaurus novus Latinitatis, from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392), giving derivations, etymolo gies, testimonia collected from Paulus, Priscian, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Pru dentius, Josephus, Jerome, etc. Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still more extensively used (Goetz enumerates 103 mss. of his treatise) .

Johannes de Janua.

The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled Summa quae vocatur catholicon, dates from the year 1286, and mostly uses Hugucio and Papias ; its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace ; it quotes the Vulgate by preference; it excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the church; it borrows many Hebrew glosses, especially from Jerome; it men tions the Graecismus of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of Hrabanus Maurus, the Doctrinale of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the Aurora of Petrus de Riga.

The gloss mss. of the 9th and loth centuries are numerous, but a diminution becomes visible towards the i ith. A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanical glossaries based on earlier ones. The additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French, Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (I) the Glossae alphita; Sinonoma Bartholomei, of the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat; (3) the compilations of Simon de Janua (Clavis sana tionis, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus Silvaticus (Pan dectae medicinae, 14th century).

Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the Glossae veteris ac novi testamenti (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive praefatio") in numerous mss. of the 9th to i4th centuries, mostly retaining the various books under sep arate headings. Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who lived about 12 5o, and compiled a Summa (beginning "diffi ciles studeo partes quas Biblia gestat Pandere") which gave rise to the Mammotrectus of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions of 147o, etc.

Finally we may mention such compilations as the Summa Heinrici (the Breviloquus, which drew its chief material from Papias, Hugucio, Brito, etc.) ; the Vocabularium Ex quo; the various Gemmae and Vocabularia rerum.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The

modern historical interest in glosses and glossBibliography.-The modern historical interest in glosses and gloss- aries began with J. Scalicer (1540-16o9) , who in his edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O. Muller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps. Scaliger also planned the publication of a Corpus glossarum, and left behind a collection of glosses known as glossae Isidori. The study of glosses was greatly furthered through the publication, in 1573, of the bilingual glossaries by Henri Stephanus (Estienne) . In 1600 Bonay. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (I) the glossae Isidori, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the Onomasticon; (3) notae and castigationes, derived from Scaliger. In 16o6 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679, by Du Cange, after which the i7th and 18th centuries pro duced no further glossaries, though glosses were constantly used or referred to by scholars at Leyden, where a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the Vossius library. In the 19th century came Osann's Glossarii Latini specimen (1826) ; the glossographical publications of Angelo Mai (Classici auctores,vols. ni., vi., vii., 1831-36, containing Osbern's Panormia, and various glosses from Vatican mss.) ; Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847) on the Codex Amplonianus of Osbern, and his edition of the three Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology ; in 1854 G. F. Hildebrand's Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690 ; 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R. Paul Wiilcker under the title Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabu laries; L. Diefenbach's supplement to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae aetatis; Ritschl's treatise (187o) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus by Deuerling ; G. Loewe's Prodomus Corporis Glossariorum Latinorum (1876) , and other treatises by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884) ; 1888, the second volume of Goetz's own great Corpus glossarium Latinorum, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum, containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1885, H. Sweet, Latin-Anglo-Saxon glossaries in Oldest English Texts; 189o, J. H. Hessels, apograph of the Corpus Glossary, 1906 of the Leyden Glossary ; 1 goo, Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses, collected chiefly from Aldhelm mss.; 1921, W. M. Lindsay, Corpus Glossary and The Corpus, Epinal, Erfurt, and Leyden Glossaries; 1922, Lindsay, Palaeo graphia Latina.

Among encyclopaedic articles the chief are Tolkiehn's article "Lexi cographie" and G. Goetz's article "Lateinische Glossographie" in Pauly's Realencyklopiidie. By the side of Goetz's Corpus stands the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, Die althochdeutschen Glossen (4 vols., 1879-98), containing a vast number of glosses culled from Bible mss. and mss. of classical Christian authors. Besides the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned, we refer here to a few others: De-Vit (at end of Forcellini's Lexicon) ; J. H. Gallee (Altsachs. Sprachdenkm., 1894) ; K. Gruber (Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904) ; W. Heraeus (Die Sprache des Petronius and die Glossen, Leipzig, 1899) ; W. Meyer Liibke ("Zu den latein. Glossen" in Wiener Stud. xxv. 90 sqq.) ; Henry Nettleship, Lectures and Essays; R. Reitzenstein, Geschichte der Griechischen Etymologika (1897) ; on the three Philemons, see L. Cohen in Philologus 57 (N.F. ii.), 353-67; (many important articles in Anglia, Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein. Lexicographie, Romania, Zeitschr. fur deutsches Alterthum, Journal of English and Germanic Philology, American Journal of Philology, Classical Review. Lindsay and J. H. Thomson, Ancient Lore in Mediaeval Latin Glossaries (1921) is an important guide to the problem of gloss-derivation.

(J. H. HES.; C. T. O.)