Effects of Jewish Literary Activity

EFFECTS OF JEWISH LITERARY ACTIVITY Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on those of France. The fact that many of the most impor tant works were written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the Moors, which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at Marseilles about 123o, was equally prolific. He translated the Moreh Neb hukhim during the life of the author, and with some help from him, so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides's commentary on the Mishnah tractate Pirqe Abhoth, and some minor works; treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are mostly biblical commen taries and some additional matter on the Moreh. His son Moses. who died about the end of the 13th century, translated the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, Euclid's Elements (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's Viaticum, medical works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi (Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immor tality. His nephew Jacob ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific works, such as parts of Aver roes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the Greek, as Euclid's Data, Autolycus, Menelaus ( ) and Theodosius on the Sphere, and Ptolemy's Almagest. He also compiled astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into Latin, thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning acces sible to mediaeval Europe.

Another important family about this time is that of Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac Qimhi was born, who migrated to Southern France, probably for the same reason which caused the flight of Maimonides, and died there about I 1 7 0. He wrote works on grammar, commentaries on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, Seplier ha-berith, and a translation of Bahya's Hobhoth ha-lebliabhoth. His son Moses (d. about 119o) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries, wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne (d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the Mikhlol, consists of a grammar and lexicon ; his commentaries on various parts of the Bible are ad mirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely in fluenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ra merupt (d. 1 1 7 1), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the Seplier lia yasliar (novelae and responsa) and was one of the chief Tosa phists. Of the same school were Menahem ben Simeon of Pos quieres, a commentator, who died about the end of the I2th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (I3th century), author of the Semag (book of precepts, positive and negative) a very popu lar and valuable halakhic work.

A younger contemporary of David Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e., of Beziers), the poet, and some time in the i3th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose ethical poem, Qe`arath Yosepli, was translated by Reuchlin and later by others. Berachiah, the compiler of the "Fox Fables" (which have much in common wth the "Ysopet" of Marie de France), is generally thought to have lived in Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in England in the I2th century. In Ger many, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. 1238), besides being a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic studies. Isaac ben Moses (d. about 127o), who had studied in France, wrote the famous Or Zarua` (from which he is often called), an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides's Mislineh Torah, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at Wiirzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his halak hic treatises and Talmudic studies. He also composed a number of piyyutim. Mei'r's pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of Nurnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his halakhic work, usually known as the Mordekhai. This is a codification of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mor decai was left to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in Austria) and a Western (in Ger many, France, etc.) . In the East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusa lem was the author of commentaries (not to be confounded with the Midrash Tanhumd) on many books of the Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (Kitdb al-Mursliid) to the Mishnah, all in Arabic.

Limit of Development.

With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the limit of its develop ment. Later writers to a large extent used over again the ma terials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about 133o), perhaps the friend and cer tainly the imitator of Dante, wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-`Eden," is suggested by the Divina Commedia. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual and a commentary on Pirqe Ablioth. About the same time Isaac Israeli wrote his Yesodh `Olam and other astronomical works which were much studied.

Jacob ben Asher of Toledo (d. 134o), was the author of the Tut- (or the four Turim), an important code of Jewish law. His pupil, David Abudrahim, of Seville (d. after 134o), wrote a com mentary on the liturgy.

Both the 14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 135o), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about 138o), who translated St. Mat thew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah Bedersi, i.e., of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (Behinatli ha-`olam), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes, wrote also many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e., of Largentiere (d. 134o), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and PjyYatim. In the first half of the 14th century lived the two trans lators, Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen and Aver roes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing original works, e.g., one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled Eben Bohan. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist (letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (Ma`aseh Efod) and a commentary on the Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian.

About the same time in Spain

controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas (d. 141o) wrote against Christianity and in his Or Adonai against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his `Iqqarim had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers in his Magen Ablioth and in his numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti Maimonist, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 148o), a com mentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathe matician and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote Shebet Yeliudah, of doubtful value historically ; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after 151o), astronomer, wrote the Sepher Yuhasin, an historical work of importance. In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled a very useful commentary on the Mishnah. His account of his travels and his letters are of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries (not of the first rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the MOreh, philosophical treatises and apolo getics, such as the Yeshu`oth Meshiho, all of which had consider able influence. Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise Behinath ha-dath, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin.

Later Writers.

The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi, Reggio, 147 5) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim of Tunis (d. about 153o), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his masoretic work in connection with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bom berg, author of the Massoreth ha-Massoreth and other works on grammar and lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his Beth Yoseph (Venice, 1 J5o), a commentary on the Tie, and his Shulhan `Arukh (Venice, 1564) an halakhic work like the Tur, which is still a standard authority. The influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his Me'or `Enayim (Man tua, 15 73) Dei Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements.

Another historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose Dibhre ha-yamiyn (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his 'Emeq ha-bakhah an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work Zemah David (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was Hayyim Vital, author of the 'Ez liayyim, and his son Samuel, who wrote an introduction to the Kabbalah, called Shemoneh She'arim. To the same school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 1570), the Kabbalist, whose chief work was the Pardes Rirnrnonim (Cracow, In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his Beth Yehudah, and probably Qol Sakhal, against traditionalism, besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delme digo, of Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific sub jects. Also connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author, best known for the Tosaphoth Yom Tobh on the Mishnah (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643) . Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of Wilna (d. 1662), com mented on the Shulhan `Ariikh. In the East, David Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work Qore ha-doroth (Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah, kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote Qol be-ramah, a commen tary on the Zohar and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kab balist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be Mes siah, Shabbethai Zebhi, wrote Hod Malkuth (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons.

In the 18th century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. 1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel Baal Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son Abra ham (d. 18o8), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash. An historical work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the Seder ha-doroth of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong in spirit to the previous century.