Hungarian Literature

HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. The Catholic ecclesi astics who settled in Hungary during the 1 1 th century were mainly instrumental in establishing Latin as the predominant language of the court, the higher schools and public worship, and Latin con tinued to monopolize the chief fields of literature until the revival of the native language at the close of the 18th century. Amongst the earliest Latin works that claim attention are the "Chronicle" (Gesta Hungarorum), by the "anonymous notary" of King Bela, probably Bela II. (1131-1141), called in the light of recent research "Petrus Magister" or "Paulus Magister," an ecclesiastic who had learned the profession of notary in Paris. His work describes the early ages of Hungarian history. Other early chron icles are the Carmen miserabile of Rogerius ; the Liber Cronicorum of Simon Kezai (end of the 13th century), the so-called "Chroni con Budense," Cronica Hungarorum, printed at Buda in and the Chronicon Rerum Hungaricarum of John Thuroczi. An extraordinary stimulus was given to literary enterprise by King Matthias Corvinus, who attracted both foreign and native scholars to his court. Foremost amongst the Italians was Antonio Bonfini, whose work, Rerum Hungaricarum Decades IV., comprising Hun garian history from the earliest times to the death of King Matthias, was published with a continuation by Sambucus (Basle, 1568) . Marzio Galeotti, the king's chief librarian, wrote an historical account of his reign. The most distinguished of the native scholars was John Csezmiczei, alias Janus Pannonius, who composed Latin epigrams, panegyrics and epic poems. The best edition of his works was published by Count S. Teleki at Utrecht in 1784.

As there are no traces of literary productions in the native or Magyar dialect before the Lath century, the early condition of the language is concealed from the philologist. It is, however, known that the Hungarians had their own martial songs, and that their princes kept lyre and lute players who sang festal odes in praise of the national heroes. In the 11th century Christian teachers introduced the use of the Roman letters, but the employment of the Latin language was not formally decreed until 1114. (See Bowring, Poetry of the Magyars, Introd. xix.) It appears, more over, that up to that date public business was transacted in Hun garian, for the decrees of King Coloman the Learned (1095-1114) were translated from that language into Latin. Among the literary relics of the 13th century are the Halotti Beszed funeral discourse and prayer in Hungarian.

From the Margit-legenda, or "Legend of St. Margaret," com posed in the early part of the 14th century, it is evident that from time to time the native language continued to be employed as a means of religious edification. Under the kings of the house of Anjou, the Magyar became the language of the court. The literary documents of this era have been published in a series called Nyelvemlektdr under the aegis of the Hungarian Academy. The words of old Hungarian have been collected in the Lexicon linguae hungaricae nevi antiquioris (1890) and in the Lexicon Vocabu lorum Hungaricorum (1902). To the early part of the 15th century must be assigned the legends of "St. Francis" and of "St. Ursula," and possibly the original of the Enek Pannonia megvetel erol, an historical "Song about the Conquest of Pannonia." But not until the dawn of the Reformation did Magyar begin in any sense to replace Latin for literary purposes. The period placed by Hungarian authors between 1437 and 153o marks the first development of Magyar literature.

About the year 1437 two Hussite monks named Tamas and Balint (i.e., Thomas and Valentine) adapted from older sources a large portion of the Bible for the use of the Hungarian refugees in Moldavia. Other relics belonging to this period are the oath which John Hunyady took when elected governor of Hungary (1446) ; the Siralomenek Both .Idnos veszedelmen (Elegy upon John Both), written by a certain "Gregori"; and the Emlekdal Matyds kirdly Haldldra (Memorial Song on the Death of King Matthias, 1490). To these may be added the rhapsody on the taking of "Szabacs" (1476) ; the Katalin-Legenda, a metrical "Legend of St. Catherine of Alexandria," extending to over 4,000 lines, and who shows already traces of the criticism of the Renaissance and of a mentality opposed to the philosophy of the middle ages; and the Feddo enek (Upbraiding Song) by Francis Apathi.

Reformation Period.

In the next literary period (1530 1606) several translations of the Scriptures are recorded. Karadi in 1569 brought to light the earliest national drama, Balassi Men yhert. Among the native poets, mostly mere rhyming chroniclers of the 16th century, the best and most prolific writer was Tinodi. Szekely wrote in prose, with verse introduction, a "Chronicle of the World" under the title of Cronica ez vildgnac yeles dolgairol (Cracow, . Csaktornya and Kakony imitated the ancient classical poets, and Erdosi introduced the hexameter. During the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th two poets of a higher order appeared in Valentine Balassa, the earliest Magyar lyrical writer, a disciple of Petrarch and of the humanist poets, a poet of platonic love, and his contemporary John Rimay.

The melancholy state of the country consequent upon the perse cutions of Rudolph I., Ferdinand II. and Leopold I., as also the continual encroachment of Germanizing influences under the Habs burgs, were unfavourable to the development of the national litera ture during the next literary period, dating from the Peace of Vienna (16o6) to that of Szatmar (iii). A few names were, however, distinguished in theology, philology and poetry. In 1626 a Hungarian version of the Vulgate was published at Vienna by the Jesuit George Kaldi, and another complete translation of the Scriptures, the so-called Komdromi Biblia (Komorn Bible) was made in 1685 by the Protestant George Csipkes, though it was not published till 1717 at Leyden. On behalf of the Catholics the Jesuit Peter Pazman and others were the authors of various works of a polemical nature. Especially famous was the Hodaegus, Kalauz of Pazman, which first appeared at Pozsony (Pressburg) in 1613. Among the Protestant writers were Nemeti, Alvinczy, Alexander Felvinczy, Martonfalvi and Melotai, who was attached to the court of Bethlen Gabor. Telkibanyai wrote on "English Puritanism" (1654). Parispapai compiled an Hungarian-Latin. Dictionary (Locse, 1708), and Apaczai-Csere, a Magyar Encyclo paedia (Utrecht, 1653). In polite literature the heroic poem Zrinyidsz (1651), descriptive of the fall of Sziget, by Nicholas Zrinyi, marks a new era in Hungarian poetry. Zrinyi, who in his prose works reveals himself to be a disciple of Machiavelli, ex pressed in his grandiose writings the spirit of Catholic reform coupled with a baroque taste. The lyric and epic poems of Stephen Gyongyosy, who sang the deeds of Maria Szechy, are samples rather of a general improvement in the style than of the purity of the language. From the appearance of the first extant printed Magyar work at Cracow in 1527 to the end of the period just treated, more than 180o publications in the native language are known.

The period comprised between the peace of Szatmar (17I I) and the year 1772 is far more barren in literary results than even that which preceded it. The exhaustion of the nation from its pro tracted civil and foreign wars, the extinction of the court of the Transylvanian princes where the native language had been cher ished, and the prevalent use of Latin in the schools, public transactions and county courts, all combined to bring about a complete neglect of the Magyar language and literature. Among the few prose writers of distinction were Clement Mikes who has bequeathed us the most exquisite prose of the century in his memoires in letter form (1717-58), where may be observed the influence of the English Spectator; the historian Michael Cserei; and Peter Bod, who besides his theological treatises compiled a history of Hungarian literature (1766). But the most celebrated writer of this period was the Jesuit Francis Faludi. On account of the classic purity of his style in prose, Faludi was known as the "Magyar Cicero." Not only as a philosophic and didactic writer, but also as a lyric and dramatic poet he surpassed all his con temporaries. Another pleasing lyric poet of this period was Ladis laus Amade, and of considerable merit are the sacred lyrical melo dies of Paul Radai in his Lelki hodolds (Spiritual Homage, 1715).

The next three literary periods stand in special relationship to one another, and are sometimes regarded as the same. The first two, marking respectively the progress of the "Regeneration of the Native Literature" (1772-1807) and the "Revival of the Lan guage" (1807-3o), were introductory to and preparatory for the third or "Academy," period, which began about 1830.

Regeneration of the Literature.

In consequence of the general neglect of the Magyar language during the reigns of Maria Theresa and her successor Joseph II., the more important prose productions of the latter part of the 18th century were written either in Latin or in German. The reaction in favour of the native literature manifested itself at first chiefly in the creation of various schools of poetry. Foremost among these stood the so-called "French" school, founded by George Bessenyei, the author of several dramatic pieces, and of an imitation of Pope's Essay on Man, under the title of Az embernek probaja (1772). Bessenyei introduced the use of rhymed alexandrines in place of the monot onous Zrinian measure. Other writers of the same school were Laurence Orczy and Abraham Barcsay. The songs and elegies of Paul Anyos show great depth of feeling. Versifiers and adaptors from the French appeared also in Counts Adam and Joseph Teleki, and Joseph Peczeli, who translated Young's Night Thoughts. The chief representatives of the strictly "classical" school were David Baroti Szabo, Nicholas Revai, Joseph Rajnis and Benedict Virag. Among the works of Baroti Szabo is an abridged version of Paradise Lost (1802) . Baroti, moreover, pub lished (1810-13) a translation of Virgil's Aeneid and Eclogues. The "classical" school reached its highest state of culture under Virag, whose poetical works, consisting chiefly of Horatian odes and epistles, obtained for him the name of the "Magyar Horace." The Poetai Munkai (Poetical Works) of Virag were published at Pest in 1799. Of his prose works the most important is the Magyar Szazadok or "Pragmatic History of Hungary" (Buda, 18o8). Valyi-Nagy, the first Magyar translator of Homer, belongs rather to the "popular" than the "classical" school. His translation of the Iliad appeared at Sarospatak in 1821. The establishment of the "national" or "popular" school is attributable chiefly to Andrew Dugonics. His national romances, especially Etelka (Poz sony, 1787) and Az arany pereczek (Pest and Pozsony, 1790), attracted public attention, and were soon adapted for the stage. Joseph Gvadanyi's trilogy Falusi Notdrius (Village Notary, 1790), as also his Ronto Pal es gr. Benyovszky torteneteik (Adventures of Paul Ronto and Count Benyovszky), are humorous and read able, but careless in style. Of a more general character, and com bining the merits of the above schools,—are the works of the authors who constituted the so called "Debrecen Class"; e.g., Michael Fazekas, author of an epic, Ludas Matyi (1817) . Other precursors of the modern school were the poet and philologist Francis Verseghy; the gifted didactic prose writer, Joseph Kar man, who had published a sentimental novel in the manner of Werther, Fanni hagyomanyai (Memoirs and letters of Fanni ; the lyric poets, Szentjobi, Szabo, Bacsanyi (q.v.) and Dayka. Still more celebrated were Mihaly Csokonai (q.v.) and Alexander Kisfaludy (q.v.). The first volume of Alexander Kisfaludy's Him f y, a series of short lyrics of a descriptive and reflective nature, appeared at Buda in 1801, under the title of Kesergo szerelem (Unhappy Love), and was received with great enthusiasm ; nor was the success of the second volume Boldog szerelem (Happy Love, 1807), inferior. The Regek, or "Tales of the Past" (1807) still further increased Kisfaludy's fame ; but in his dramatic works he was not equally successful. Journalistic literature in the native language begins with the Magyar Hirmondo (Harbinger) started by Matthias Rath at Pozsony in 1780. Among the magazines the most important was the Magyar Muzeum, established at Kassa (Kaschau) in 1788 by Baroti, Kazinczy and Bacsanyi. The Orpheus (1790) was the special work of Kazinczy, and the Urania (1794) of Kaman.

Revival of the Language.

Closely connected with the pre ceding period is that of the "Revival of the Language" (1807-3o), with which the name of Francis Kazinczy (q.v.) is especially asso ciated. He perfected the work of restoration begun by Baroti and amplified by Revai. Poetry and belles lettres still continued to occupy the chief place in the native literature, but under Kazinczy and his immediate followers a correctness of style and excellence of taste hitherto unknown soon became apparent. Kazinczy, in his efforts to accommodate the national language to the demands of an improved civilization, availed himself of the treasures of European literature, but thereby incurred the oppo sition of ardent nationalists. The opinions of his enemies were ventilated in a lampoon styled Mondolat. Daniel Berzsenyi, whose odes are among the finest in the Hungarian language, was the corre spondent of Kazinczy, and like him a victim of the attacks of the Mondolat. But the fervent patriotism, elevated style, and glowing diction of Berzsenyi soon caused him to be recognized as a truly national bard. His friend, John Kiss, possesses some merit as the translator of Pope and Thomson. As a sonnet writer none stands higher than Paul Szemere. The lyric poems of Francis Kolcsey can hardly be surpassed, whilst his orations exhibit not only his own powers, but the singular excellence of the Magyar language as an oratorical medium. Andrew Fay is chiefly remembered for his Eredeti Mesek (Original Fables). The dramatic works of Charles Kisfaludy, brother of Alexander, won him enthusiastic recognition as a regenerator of the drama. His plays bear a distinctive national character. Not without interest to Englishmen is the name of Gabriel Dobrentei (q.v.), the translator of Macbeth, represented at Pozsony in 1825. Joseph Katona, author of the historical tragedy Bank Ban (1820), is considered to be the greatest of the Hungarian dramatic poets. As authors of special works on philosophy, we find Samuel Koteles, John Imre, Joseph Ruszek, Daniel Ercsei and Paul Sarvari; as a theologian John Somossy ; as an historian and philologist Stephen Horvath, who endeavoured to trace the Magyar descent from the earliest historic times ; as writers on jurisprudence Alexander Kovy and Paul Szlemenics. For an account of the historian George Fejer, the laborious compiler of the Codex Diplomaticus, see FEJER.

Academy Period.

The establishment of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Nov. 17, 1830) marks the commencement of a new period. The language, nursed by the academy, developed rapidly, and showed its capacity for giving expression to almost every form of scientific knowledge. By offering rewards for the best original dramatic productions, the academy provided that the national theatre should not suffer from a lack of classical dramas. During the earlier part of its existence the Hungarian academy devoted itself mainly to the scientific development of the language and philological research. Since its reorganization in 1869 the academy has, however, paid equal attention to the various departments of history, archaeology, national economy and the physical sciences. The encouragement of polite literature was more especially the object of the Kisfaludy Society, founded in 1836, which published a complete translation of Shakespeare.

Foremost among epic poets, though not equally successful as a dramatist, was Mihaly Vorosmarty (q.v.), who combines great power of imagination with elegance of language. Generally less varied and romantic, though easier in style, are the heroic poems Augsburgi iitkozet (Battle of Augsburg) and Aradi gyiules (Diet of Arad) of Gregory Czuczor, who was, moreover, very felicitous as an epigrammatist. In the epics of John Garay and the lyrics of Joseph Bajza are the first traces of the awakening of the classic iam of Petofi and Arany. As an original but rather heavy lyric and didactic poet we may mention Peter Vajda. Of a more dis tinctly national tendency are the lyrics of John Kriza and John Erdelyi, but the reputation of the latter was more especially due to his collections of folk-lore made on behalf of the Kisfaludy society. More popular than any of the preceding, and well known in England through Sir John Bowring's translation, are the lyrics of Alexander Petofi (q.v.).

With Petofi the greatest poet of the age is Jean Arany (1817 82) who by his short epic poems earned the name of "the ballad Shakespeare." He is considered the master of classical style. Among other poets of the period should be mentioned Coloman Toth, author of several epic and dramatic pieces; John Vajda; Joseph Levay, known also as the translator of Shakespeare ; Paul Gyulai, not only a lyric and epic poet, but an impartial critical writer; Ladislaus Szelestey; Antony Varady, a patriotic and re ligious poet ; Emil Abranyi, known also as the translator of Rostand; Alexander EndrOdy, the author of Kurucdalok (Rebel Songs) ; Joseph Kiss, in his ballads a disciple of d'Arany, but an original poet in his Jewish poems, and later founder of the ultra modern revue A Het (The Week, 1890) ; and Charles Szasz, better known as a translator than as an original poet.

Plays and Novels.—Meanwhile dramatic literature found many champions, of whom the most energetic was Edward Szigligeti, proprie Joseph Szathmary, who enriched the Hun garian stage with more than 10o pieces. Of these the most pop ular are comedies and seriocomic national dramas. A less prolific but more classical writer appeared in Charles Obernyik, whose George Brankovics is one of the best historical tragedies in the language. Several of the already mentioned lyric and epic poets were occasional writers also for the drama. To these we may add Sigismund Czako, Lewis Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, Ignatius Nagy, Joseph Gaal, Charles Hugo, Lawrence Toth, Emeric Vahot, Alois Degre, Stephen Toldy and Lewis Doczi, author of the popular prize drama Csok (The Kiss) . Az ember tragoedidja (The Tragedy of Man), by Emeric Madach (r861), is a dramatic poem of a philosophical and contemplative character, which even now remains a repertory piece at the National Theatre. Among successful dramatic pieces may be mentioned the Falu rossza (Village Scamp, 1875), of Edward Toth, which represents the life of the Hungarian peasantry, and Iskariot (1876) by Anthony Varady. In the years between 1860 and 188o a school called the "neo-romantic" reigned in the theatre (Jokai, Rekosy and Berc zik), while the so-called popular drama was revived by Francis Csepreghy and Geza Gardonyi.

Original romance writing, which may be said to have com menced with Dugonics and Kaman at the close of the 18th, and to have found a representative in Francis Verseghy at the begin ning of the 19th century, was afterwards revived by Fay in his Belteky hdz (1832), and by the contributors to certain literary magazines, especially the Aurora, an almanack conducted by Charles Kisfaludy, 1821-30, and continued by Joseph Bajza to 1837. The Magyar novels, although enlivened by touches of humour, have generally rather a serious historical or political bearing. Especially is this the case with Nicholas Josika's Abaft (1836), A csehek Magyarorszdgon (The Bohemians in Hungary), and Az utolso Bdtori (The Last of the Bathoris), published in 1847. The same may be said of Baron Joseph Eotvos's Karthauzi (1839) and Falu jegyzo je (1845), translated into English (1850) by O. Wenckstern. Of the novels produced by Baron Sigismund Kemeny, considered to be the greatest Hungarian novelist, who mingled in his historical works realism and romanticism, the most important are A rajongok (Fanatics, a Jewish sect in Tran sylvania in the 16th century) pubilshed in 1859, and Zord Ido (The Disastrous Era, 1862) .

The graphic descriptions of Hungarian life in the middle and lower classes by Lewis Kuthy won for him temporary renown. Another popular writer of great originality was Gereben Vas. The fertile writer Paul Kovacs excels more particularly in humorous narration. Pleasing humorous sketches are contained also in Ignatius Nagy's "Caricatures" or Torzkepek (1844). But, by far the most prolific and talented novelist that Hungary can boast of is Maurus Jokai (q.v.), whose power of imagination and brilliancy of style, no less than his true representations of Hun garian life and character, have earned for him a European repu tation. Towards the end of the romantic period the versified novel with heroes in the manner of Byron and Pushkin became the mode. In this new genre the following deserve mention : Romhdnyi by Paul Gyulai, Tunderov (The Fairy Zone, 1876) by John Bulla, Delibdbok hose (Hero of the Mirages, 1873) by Ladislas Arany, Taldlkozdsok (Rencounters, 1877) by John Vajda and Rrlskai Lea (188 7) by Zsolt Bexthy.

Science and History.—As regards works of a scientific char acter, the Magyars until recently were confessedly behindhand as compared with many other European nations. Indeed, before the foundation of the Hungarian academy in 183o, few such works claiming general recognition had been published in the native language. Even in 1847 astronomy, physics, logic and other subjects of the kind had to be taught in several of the lyceums through the medium of Latin. The violent political commotions of the next few years allowed but little opportunity for the prose cution of serious studies; the subsequent quieter state of the country, and gradual re-establishment of the language as a means of education, were, however, more favourable to the development of scientific knowledge.

In the department of philosophy Hungary could boast a few authors of independent and original thought. Of these one of the Most notable is Cyril Horvath, whose treatises published in the organs of the academy display a rare freedom and comprehensive ness of imagination. The philosophical labours of the already mentioned John Erdelyi and of Augustus Greguss won for them well-deserved recognition, the latter especially being famous for his aesthetical productions, in which he appears to follow out the principles of Vischer.

The labours of Stephen Horvath in the preceding period had prepared the way for future workers in the field of historical literature. Specially meritorious among these are Michael Hor vath, Ladislaus Szalay, Paul Jaszay and Count Joseph Teleki. The Magyarok tortenete (History of the Magyars), first published at Papa (1842-46), is the most famous of Michael Horvath's numerous historical productions. Ladislaus Szalay's Mag yarorszdg tortenete (History of Hungary, 1852-61) is a most comprehensive work, showing more particularly the progress of Hungarian legislative development in past times. Count Joseph Teleki is famed chiefly for his Hunyadiak kora (The times of the Hunyadys, 1863). In particular departments of historical litera ture we find Alexander Szilagyi, some of whose works, like those of Ladislaus Kovary, bear on the past of Transylvania ; Charles Lanyi and John Pauer, authors of treatises on Roman Catholic ecclesiastical history; John Szombathi, Emeric Revesz and Balogh, writers on Protestant church history; William Fraknoi, biographer of Cardinal Pazman, and historian of the Hungarian diets; and Aaron Sziladi, Joseph Podhradczky, Charles Szabo, John Jerney and Francis Salamon, who have investigated and elucidated many special historical subjects. For the mediaeval history of Hungary the Mdtydskori diplomatikai emlekek (Diplo matic Memorials of the Time of Matthias Corvinus), issued by the academy under the joint editorship of Ivan Nagy and Baron Albert Nyary, affords interesting material. Among the many historians of Magyar literature Francis Toldy alias Schedel holds the foremost place. For philological and ethnographical research into the origin and growth of the language none excels Paul Hunfalvy. He is, moreover, the warm advocate of the theory of its Ugrio-Finnic origin, as established by the Uralian traveller Anthony Reguly, the result of whose labours Hunfalvy published in 1864, under the title A Vogul fold es nep (The Vogul Land and People). Between 1862 and 1866 valuable philological studies bearing on the same subject were published by Joseph Budenz in the Nyelvtudomdnyi Kozlemenyek (Philological Transactions) .

As compilers and authors of works in various scientific branches allied to history, may be particularly mentioned—in statistics and geography, Alexius Fenyes, Emeric Palugyay, John Hunfalvy, Charles Keleti, Leo Beothy and Paul Kiraly; in travel, Ignatius Goldziher, Ladislaus Magyar, John Xantus, John Jerney, Count Andrassy, Ladislaus Podmaniczky, Paul Hunfalvy; in astronomy, Nicholas Konkoly; in archaeology, Bishop Arnold Ipolyi, Florian Romer, Emeric Henszlmann, Baron Albert Nyary and Francis Pulszky; in Hungarian mythology, Bishop Ipolyi and Anthony Csengery; in numismatics, John Erdy and Jacob Rupp; and in Jurisprudence, Augustus Karvassy, Theodore Pauler, Gustavus Wenczel, John Fogarasi and Ignatius Frank.

Notwithstanding the exertions of Paul Bugat to arouse an interest in the natural sciences by the establishment in 1841 of the "Hungarian Royal Natural Science Association," no general activ ity was manifested in this department of knowledge, so far as the native literature was concerned, until 186o, when the academy organized a special committee for the advancement of mathe matical and natural science. The principal contributors to the "Transactions" of this section of the academy were—for anatomy and physiology, Coloman Balogh, Eugene Jendrassik, Joseph Len hossek and Lewis Thanhoffer; for zoology, John Frivaldszky, John Kriesch and Theodore Margo; for botany, Frederick Hazs linszky, Lewis Jurcnyi and Julius Klein; for mineralogy and geology, Joseph Szabo, Max Hantken, Joseph Krenner, Anthony Koch and Charles Hoffman; for physics, Baron Lorando Eotvos, Coloman Szily and Joseph Sztoczek ; for chemistry, Charles Than and Vincent Wartha ; for meteorology, Guido Schenzl. Among the authors of scientific monographs should be mentioned the names of Otto Hermann, Anthony Kerpely and Thomas Kosutany.

Literature Since 1880.

The number of Magyar writers has since 188o increased to an extent hardly expected by the reading public in Hungary itself. In 183o there were only ten Magyar periodical publications; in 188o we find 368; in i885 their number rose to 494; in 1890 to 636; and at the beginning of 1895 no fewer than 8o6 periodical publications, written in the Hungarian language, appeared in Hungary. Since that time (1895) the number of periodical as well as of non-periodical literary works has been constantly rising, although, as in all countries with a literature of rather recent origin, the periodical publications are, in proportion to the whole of the output, far more numerous than the non-periodical. This remarkable increase in the quantity of literary work was, on the whole, accompanied by a fair advance in literary quality.

In lyrical poetry the influence of Heine, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche made itself felt, while the inner tradition followed the ways traced out by Petofi and Arany: the fight between the modern influences from abroad and the classical Hungarian tra ditions, began, though feebly, in this early period. Among the poets who first came to the fore in the '6os several were active after 188o: Victor Dalmady, Ladislas Arany, Emil Abranyi. Julius Reviczky (1855-99) inclined to the occidental rather than to the specifically Magyar type of poets, initiating an aristocratic and pessimistic school of poetry. Others were Joseph Kiss, Alex ander Endr6di and Odon Jakab; Louis Posa, the charming chil dren's poet ; Andor Kozma, Hungary's greatest satirical poet ; Gustave Csengey, Jean Dengi, Antoine Rack) and Louis Palagyi; Eugene Heltai, the initiator of the light "chanson" in the Parisian manner ; Jules Rudnyanszky, Arpad Zemplenyi, Emil Makai, etc.

Among Hungarian novels we may distinguish four dominant genres. The first is represented almost exclusively by Maurus Jokai (q.v.). To the school so perfectly represented by Jokai belong Arpad Kupa, Robert Tabori, Julius Werner, etc. The second class of Hungarian modern novelists is led by the well known Koloman Mikszath, a poet endowed with originality, a charming naivete, and a freshness of observation from life. A close observer of the multifarious low life of Hungary, Mikszath has, in his short stories, given a delightful yet instructive picture of all the minor varied phases of the peasant life of the Slays, the Palocok, the Saxons, the town artisan. Amongst his numerous works may be mentioned A jó paloczok ("The Good Paloczok," Slav peasants) ; Egy vdlasztds Magyarorszdgon ("An Election in Hungary") ; A tekintetes vdrmegye ("The Worshipful County") and Szent Peter esernydje ("St. Peter's Umbrella," Eng. trans. by Miss B. W. Worswick). Mikszath has had considerable influence upon other writers. Such are Victor Rakosi (Sipulus tdrcdi, "The Essays of Sipulus" ; Alexius Benedek, the author of numerous distinctly sympathetic and truly Magyar tales, fables and novels, one of the most gifted and deserving literary workers of modern Hungary; Geza Gardonyi Stephen Barsony, etc. The third class of Magyar novelists comprises those cosmopolitan writers who take their method of work, their inspiration and even many of their subjects from foreign authors. A people with an intense national sentiment, such as the Hungarians, do not as a rule incline towards permanent admiration of foreign-born or im ported literary styles; and accordingly the work of this class of novelists has frequently met with very severe criticism on the part of various Magyar critics. Yet it can scarcely be denied that several of the "foreign" novelists have contributed a wholesome, if not quite Magyar, element of form or thought to literary nar rative style in Hungary. Probably the foremost among them is Sigismund Justh (A puszta konyve, "The Book of the Puszta," prairie of Hungary; Fuimus). Other novelists belonging to this school are: Desiderius Malonyai, Julius Pekar (Dodo fohadnagy problemdi, "Lieutenant Dodo's Problems) Thomas Kobor, Ste phen Szomahazy, Zoltan Thury, Sigismund Gyarmathy, etc. In the fourth class may be grouped such of the latest Hungarian novelists as have tried, and on the whole succeeded, in clothing their ideas and characters in a style peculiar to themselves. Be sides Stephen Petelei and Zoltan Ambrus must be mentioned especially Francis Herczeg, who has published a number of very interesting studies of Hungarian social life (Simon Zsuzsa, "Susanna Simon" ; Fenn es lenn, "Above and Below") ; and Alex ander Brody (Don Quixote kisasszony, "Miss Don Quixote"; Faust orvos, "Faust the Physician").

Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the Government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and also in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvar, in Transylvania), developed remarkably. In the modern drama three great and clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the neo-romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rakosi and Louis Doczi. To the same school belong Louis Bartok, Anton Varadi and Alexander Somlo. The next group of Hungarian dramatists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (q.v.). Among Csiky's most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already mentioned as a novelist), author of the suc cessful society comedy, A Gyurkovics lednyok ("The Misses Gyurkovics") and Hdrom testor ("Three Guardsmen") . Arpad Berczik's Nezd meg az anyjat ("Look at her Mother"), A pro tekczio ("Patronizing"), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The third group of dramatic writers take their subjects, surround ings and diction from the folk-life of the villages (nepszinmiu, "folk-drama"). The greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward Toth (Toloncz, "The Ousted Pauper").

Philosophy and Science.

In philosophy there has been a remarkable increase of activity, partly assimilative or eclectic and partly original. Peter Bihari and Maurice Kerman have in various writings spread the ideas of Herbart. After the school of Comte, yet to a large extent original, is the Az ember es vildga ("Man and his World") of Charles Bohm, who in 1881 started a philosophical review (Magyar Filozofiai Szemle), subsequently edited by Joseph Bokor. Realism, more particularly of the Wundt type, is represented by Emericus Pauer, Az ethikai determinismus ("Ethical Determinism"), and Eugen Posch (Az idorol, "On Time"). On a Thomistic basis John Kiss edited a philosophical re view (Bolcseleti Folyoirat) ; on similar lines have worked Akos Mihalyfi, Augustin Lubrich and others. Neo-Hegelianism was cul tivated by Eugen Schmitt, efficiently assisted by Joseph Alexander Simon. F. Medveczky (formerly a German author under the name of Fr. von Barenbach) espoused Neo-Kantism (Tdrsadalmi elmeletek es eszmanyek, 1887, "Social Theories and Ideals"). The Hungarian scholar Samuel Brassai published, in 1896, Azigazi pozitiv filozofia ("The True Positive Philosophy"). Amongst the ablest and most zealous students of the history of philosophy are Bernhard Alexander, under whose editorship, aided by Joseph Banoczi, a series of the works of the world's great thinkers ap peared, and Andrew Domanovszky, author of an elaborate History of Philosophy, etc.

Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in posi tive legislation. On Jan. 1, 1900, a new criminal code, thoroughly modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced. Among the newer writers on common and commercial law may be mentioned Wenczel, Zsogod, Gustave Schwartz, Alexander Plosz, Francis Nagy; on constitutional law, Korbuly, Ernest Nagy, Kmety, Ferdinandy, Bela Grunwald, Julius Andrassy and Emeric Hajnik; on administration, Georg Fesiis and Csiky; on finance, Mariska and Exner. Among the later writers on statistics are Konek, Keleti, Lang, Foldes, Jekelfalussy, Rath and Vizaknai.

Among the more important political works are the various monographs of Gustavus Beksics on the Dualism of Austria Hungary, on the "New Foundations of Magyar Politics" (A magyar politika u j alapjai, 1899), on the Rumanian question, etc.; the writings of Akos Beothy, Victor Concha (systematic politics), Gaza Ferdinandy (historical and systematic politics), Bela Foldes (political economy), Julius Mandello (political economy), Alex ander Matlekovics (Hungary's administrative service; Allamhdz tartds, 3 vols.), J. Polya (agrarian politics), and the late Augustus Pulszky.

In history there has been great activity. The millennial fes tivities in 1896 gave rise to the publication of what was then the most extensive history of the Hungarian nation (A magyar nemzet tortenete, 1895-1901), ten large and splendidly illustrated volumes, edited by Alexander Szilagyi, with the collaboration of the best specialists of modern Hungary, Joseph Hampel, J. B. Kuzsinszky, Geza Nagy, H. Marczali, Anton Por, Schonherr, V. Fraknoi, Arpad Karolyi, David Angyal, Coloman Thaly, Geza and Aladar Ballagi.

Literary criticism was actively pursued. Among the more authoritative writers Paul Gyulai and Zsolt Beothy represented the conservative school; younger critics, e.g., Zoltan Ferenczy and Ladislas Negyessy, have shown themselves somewhat too ready to follow the latest Norwegian or Parisian sensation.

20th Century Literature.

Hungarian literature at the be ginning of the loth century was on the brink of a revolution. The intellectual life of the country was undergoing a crisis. After I,000 years of a history, sometimes glorious but more often tragic, Hungary was faced by new difficulties which threatened her very life : the social question, the defence of her civilization and her language against the Slav and Teutonic races, and the antagonism between the essentially rural nature of the Hungarian people and the Americanism and cosmopolitanism of the capital, Budapest.

Writers were divided into two camps : the traditionalists and the moderns. This division still persists. The older generation, inspired by Hungarian nationalism, had joined in the celebration of the country's i,000th anniversary in 1896 and had accepted modern civilization but remained firmly opposed to cosmopoli tanism and radicalism. They still longed for the Hungarian steppes and the old folk songs. From this generation originated what is known as the Turanian movement, which draws its inspiration and its themes from the East and endeavours to arouse in the Hungarian people the consciousness of their non European origin. The numbers of this older generation diminish year by year. The patriotic and classical poets, Joseph Levay (1825-1918) and Alexander Endrodi (1850-192o), towards the end of their lives burst again into song. In 1910 Hungary lost the novelist Koloman Mikszath, the most notable successor of Jokai. Among contemporary writers of this school are the poets Jules Vargha and Andre Kozma, the novelist Ferencz Herczeg and the critic and essayist Eugene Rakosi, their organ being the review Budapesti Szemle.

In opposition to the older generation were the moderns, who hailed the advent of capitalism and industrialism in place of the old provincial spirit. These intellectual radicals wished to eliminate from literature all national characteristics, and to promote the cause of realism with its materialistic philosophy. They turned their faces towards the West, not the chauvinistic West, but the home of cosmopolitanism and anti-nationalism. The moderns gathered their forces in the early years of the loth century, using as their rallying point a review with the symbolic title Nyugat, edited by Ignotus. Round it gathered the young poets of the symbolist and romantic school. Chief among these men was Andre Ady, an original Magyar genius, whose primitive and prophetic gifts place him in the first rank of Hungarian poets. Influenced as he was by French symbolism as well as by the works of Zola, he drew inspiration also from the days before the school of Arany, from the melancholy, sometimes crudely ex pressed, Protestant hymns of the 16th century, from the songs of the rebels against the Austrians, from the archaic and primitive beauties of the Hungarian Bible. He tilts against conventional morality and describes love with all the voluptuousness of the realist: a trait which is, in fact, common to all the moderns. He is distinguished by a certain aristocracy of mind, as, for instance, in his attitude towards the Nietzschean cult of the Ego, but in his general outlook, and in his hedonistic glorification of blood and treasure, and above all, in his sympathy for the poor and despised, he inclines towards Socialism.

Compared with him, modern lyrical poets such as Michael Babits, Jules Juhasz, Desire Kosztolanyi, Arpad Toth, Gabriel Olah, Erno Szep have confined themselves to pure aestheticism, seeking to express the emotions of a cultivated, almost neuras thenic, minority. The realistic novelists found a successor in Sigismond Moricz, whose preoccupation with brutish peasants and corrupt petty tradesmen reflect his political tendencies. His work is the antithesis of that of idealistic novelists such as Geza Gardonyi (d. 1923) and Cecile Tormay.

When the World War broke out, these two camps, the tradi tionalists and the moderns, were still divided by a great gulf.

Cosmopolitan literature was silent for a time. The poets of tradition hailed the conflict with acclamation. One poet, a soldier, Geza Gyoni, in a language learnt from the moderns, turning his back on fart pour fart, succeeded in expressing the horrors and pathos of the War. The moderns were not long in making them selves heard, but, as might have been expected, their pacifist lean ings were only accentuated by what had happened.

The final disaster, and the revolution of Oct. 1918 unmasked the political connections of Nyugat; its contributors joined hands with the rabble. In the intoxication of the first success the moderns threw off the mask. Their review declared itself to be definitely on the side of the revolution and of Count Karolyi. They looked forward to the end of the old feudal agricultural Hungary, the Hungary of officialdom, of the nobility and of the nationalist writers grouped around both.

During its four months' reign Bolshevism kept literature under strict control. Newspapers were suppressed and the right of publication withdrawn. A single publisher held all the world of thought in fee : the State printed nothing but propagandist papers and pamphlets. The socialized theatres were forced to produce plays in celebration of the revolution. Futurist and expressionist writers alone were protected and subsidized by the "literary directory." This upheaval brought no good to litera ture. Expressionism pushed to extremes led nowhere.

The Growth of Nationalism.

Af ter the brief Soviet regime literature set itself to assist in the task of national regeneration. With no definite theories of art or literary programme it expressed the grief of the divided country and its longing for the lost provinces. Although historic Hungary was divided into five parts, Magyar literature kept its unity. In political Hungary the novel took the place of the lyrical poetry of the pre-War period. Desire Szabo, in his loftily conceived work, describes the great cataclysm of the World War and the determined defence made by the Hun garians, in both the material and moral spheres, against the foreign invader.

Hungarian literature from this time onward endeavoured to break the bonds of torpid decadence and of anti-national radi calism, and to place before a people, struggling in the shadows of adversity, a new conception of the world which should be healthy, energetic and modern, thus again proving that Hungarian literature has always been something more than a mere exercise in aesthetics. Modern drama is striving to create new and lasting values, both poetic and philosophical. Romanticism has reap peared, and talented dramatists such as Ferencz Herczeg, Ferencz Molnar, Louis Biro and Melchior Lengyel have attained to well deserved success in the theatres of Europe, and even in those of America.

In discussing Hungarian literature we must not forget that of the lost provinces of Hungary. In Transylvania in particular there has been a remarkable renaissance. The reawakening of a feeling for the mother country has also made itself felt in the Northern Carpathians. There, poets such as the Transylvanian Vegvari often express under pseudonyms the sadness which, as Magyars, they cannot but feel. The remote districts saw a veritable renaissance of lyricism: Louis Aprily in Transylvania, Ladislas Mecs and Ladislas Olvedi in Slovakia.

Latterly it is the novel that has interested Hungary above all else. Lyric poets strive to write "great" novels such as those of Kosztolanyi, who wrote a romance about Nero the Decadent (A Veres kolto, The Poet soiled with Blood). Babits, who essayed to compose an epic in prose and verse of the three generations of modern Hungary (Haldlfiai, Son of Death) and Louis Kassak, the ex-workingman writer, with his autobiographical romance (Egy Ember elete, A Man's Life). There was an equal harvest of critical works, and nowadays the appearance of an essay causes more stir than did a poem before the War. A desperate fight has developed about the poet Ady, in which all the critics of the country are taking part, e.g., Jean Horvath Elemer Csaszar, Albert Berzeviczy, Alexandre Makkai, Eugene Doczy, Ladislas l\Tegyesy, Julius Szekfii, Eugene Rakosi, to name only the most important. The younger generation wishes to break down the ideology of the past and to adapt itself to the new aims of the nation. Count Klebelsberg has happily expressed its aims in the word "neo-nationalism." There was a similar renaissance of philosophical thought which manifested itself throughout the whole domain of intellectual life. The leader of this idealistic philosophy is Akos Pauler. Besides the periodicals (Napkelet, l'Orient, Minerva, Magyar Szetule, Revue Magyare, Szepjialom, Parnasse) a portion of the daily press contributes to this consti tutional "progressivism." The object of all is to maintain a higher cultural level than that of the neighbouring peoples. There are historians of the first rank in Berzeviczy, Skekf u, Homan, Lukinich, and Szinnyei, Melich and Gombocz are distinguished linguists. The cultural congress of the Finnish, Esthonian and Hungarian people held at Budapest in 1928 has shown that in future not only will Hungary look towards the West for its culture but it will engage in cultural co-operation with the Turko Finnish peoples.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Fr. Riedl, A History of Hungarian Literature Bibliography.-Fr. Riedl, A History of Hungarian Literature (1906) ; Ignacz Kont, Bibliographie Francaise de la Hongrie, 1521 1910 (19i3), continued by Z. Baranyai in the Revue des Etudes Hongroises since 1923; Bethge, Die Lyrik des Auslandes (1908) ; Brajjer, Moderne ungarische Lyrik (1914) ; Heinrich Horvath, Neue ungarische Lyrik (1918) ; Robert Gragger, Bibliographica Hungarica (Hungarian Institute of Berlin university, 1920, etc.) ; Eugene Pinter, History of Hungarian Literature, in Hungarian (Budapest, 1921) ; Vertes-Lebourg, Echos f rancais de la lyre Hongroise (1921) ; Leffler, Ungersk lyrik (Stockholm, 1922) ; Ivan Goll, Les Cinq Continents (192 2) ; Anthologie des conteurs hongrois (192 7) ; Anthologie de la poesie hongroise (1927). For Hungarian civilization in general see Ladislas Buday, Dismembered Hungary (Budapest, 1922) ; Francois Eckhart, Introduction a l'histoire hongroise (1928). (B. Z.)