OTHER HITTITE LANGUAGES Khattish.—Not only the mixed character of the Hittite lan guage, but also the physical characters of the "Hittite" race, its hyperbrachycephalous skull, the large hooked nose and sloping forehead, suggested the hypothesis that here an Indo-European nation is mingled with a non-Indo-European race. At the turn of the year 1919-20 this conjecture was confirmed by the inde pendent and surprising discovery of Hrozny and Forrer that in the State archives of the Hittite kings had been preserved remains of one language which is totally different from the Indo-European Hittite and which these documents call khattili, that is, khattish. According to a collection of instructions an employe shall come out from the Palace and call "khattish" the word tak/iaja, whereby the word takhaja is said to be the "khattish" word for shaver. Also according to another text the doorkeeper calls the employes of the Palace by their "khattish" designations, and this same text gives also the Indo-European-Hittite versions of these titles. Sometimes the rituals composed in the Indo-European Hittite com prise litanies, prayers, exorcisms, etc., "in the Khattish language," "in the language of the town Khatti" (khattili) ; songs also were very frequently sung by the singers in the Khattish language during religious services. Khattish appears to have played an im portant role, especially in the religion of the Khatti land. The Khattish litanies were left sometimes without translation into the Indo-European-Hittite language, but they sometimes appear there also translated into Indo-European Hittite; in the latter case we have to do with true Khattish-Hittite bilingual texts. The population of the Khatti country therefore, in regard to physical and linguistic characteristics, was mixed and not pure, as was also the ,case in ancient Babylonia with its Sumerian and Baby Ionian peoples, and Sumerian used as the ecclesiastical language. We must assume that when the Indo-European Hittites invaded Asia Minor they found there an older population which they sub dued, but were in return strongly influenced by them, both in blood and language. The long-nosed type already mentioned, and called "Hittite," also "Armenoid," especially described by the anthropologist von Luschan—so far as Eastern Asia Minor is concerned—goes indeed back to these original inhabitants of Eastern Asia Minor called "khattish" by the Boghazkeui texts. The same type is found also in Syro-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Armenia and Persia. In consequence of mixtures of peoples this large nosed race now speaks (as in antiquity) widely different languages, Indo-European languages, such as Armenian and Per sian, and Semitic Hebrew (in antiquity the Semitic Assyrian also). (The so-called "Jewish" type belongs also to this ancient race.) According to the Hittite Boghazkeui texts, to the Khattish race element in the Hittite empire belonged especially, though not exclusively, the lower class of the towns, the minor officials and the craftsmen in temple and palace, a great part of the priest hood and probably also a part of the country people.
The Khattish (by Forrer called proto-khattish) language differs fundamentally from all others of the Khatti kingdom in its con struction. It employs almost exclusively prefixes in its inflections and not suffixes ; for example, the word binu, child, forms its plural le-binu. Knowledge of this language with its astonishing abun dance of curious prefixes, which is known to us only through texts of slight extent, is still in its infancy. It is as yet uncertain whether we should regard it, with Forrer, as related to the north-east Caucasian tongues, which also make use of prefixes. (Bleich steiner [Ber. d. Forsch.-Inst. f. Osten u. Orient, 3, p. 102 and foil.] believes, on the contrary, that some analogies between Khat tish and West Caucasian languages can be established. This also is uncertain.) Contact between Indo-European Hittite and Khattish can also be established in the words borrowed from the latter tongue. As characteristic of Khattish we may mention the Khatti words kdtte "king," nimkhutun probably "woman" (Bo. 2039), vin dukkararn "cup-bearer," in which the Minor Asiatic word vin "wine," occurs, shakhtaril (with the suffix 1) "exorcist," khan tipshuvd "cook," and deal with the following Khattish fragment : imakhashail ugga varvu shugga varvashkhap ziptipail katti kur kuvenna bidush kabarvun vashkhavnn liggaran varushemu kur kubenna, etc.
It proves therefore that the Hittites themselves designated as the speech of the capital city, and probably also that of the country Khatti—K h a t t i s h—the non-Indo-European language just described, that of the original inhabitants of their country. This language should therefore be called "Hittite," because the name "Hittite" goes back to the name Khatti through the Old Testament Heth. So far a name for the Indo-European Hittite, for the official language of the Hittite state, has not been discov ered in the Boghazkeui texts; once only is the Hittite state lan guage called nashili which, however, according to Hrozn "s inter pretation, means no more than "our (language)"—comp. Lat. nos "us." In the Hittite religious services, according to the Hittite ritual texts, sometimes Khattish, sometimes Khurrish (see be low), sometimes Luish (see below) singers took part, sometimes also singers from the city Kanesh, Kanish, in Asia Minor. Be cause these last singers probably used the Indo-European state language, Forrer would call this language the "Kanish language." But nothing else supports the supposition that the Indo-European Hittites called themselves "Kaneshites"; further so far, the ex pression Kaneshili="in Kaneshite (language)" never occurs. We must therefore continue the make-shift of designating the non-Indo-European speech as "Khattish" and the Indo-European, as hitherto, as "Hittite." Lvish.—Another very important language of the Khatti king dom is Luish which Hrozny has also shown to be essentially Indo European. Forrer, who falsely calls this language "Lvevish," re garded it at first as a Finno-ugrian language, but adopted later Hrozn "s view that it, too, must be considered as Indo-European. Of this opinion are also, for example, Friedrich, Kretschmer, Ung nad and others. Luish is closely related to Hittite as is demon strated by the following passage, written in Luish and Hittite: Hittite: Marduk ... I nnaravantash ... eshkhanuvanta kuesh veshshantct Lulakhijashshan Luish: Shantash...Annarummenzi...ashkhanuvanta kuinzi vashantari Lulakhinzashtar English: Shantash (and) the Innaravantash-deities who put on mantles and the Ltllakhi-deities Hittite: khuprush kuesh ishkhijanlish Leish: khupparaza kuinzi khishkhijanti English: who have tied on their pilgrim bottles(?).
Sentences such as kuinzi vashantari (medio-passive ; comp. amantur) = Hitt. kuesh veshshanta leave no doubt as to the Indo European character of Luish and its relationship to Hittite. Cer tainly in this example (and still more perhaps in others) Luish appears to have been already more thoroughly transformed through the autochthonous languages of Asia Minor than Hittite. Unfortunately, Luish passages in the Boghazkeui texts occur but so seldom that a thorough investigation of this language is beset with difficulties.
The name Luish (Hittite Luili) is derived from that of the country Luya, which was also called Arzava and which may be possibly sought in West Cilicia, Isauria and South Lycaonia. Be sides for Luya itself the Luish language is also attested for the capital Hittite city Khatti or Kattushash and for the State of Kizvatna, commonly identified with Pontus on the Black sea. Gaze and Smith look for it on the Gulf of Issos, though with meagre justification. Thus, in the second millennium B.C., the Luites were dispersed, though probably unequally, throughout the whole of Eastern Asia Minor, but because of their name, we must certainly seek the centre of their distribution in Luya-Arzava, therefore southerly from the Khatti country. They are the Indo Europeans who made the furthest advance into the South of Asia Minor in the second millennium B.C. They must—as the earliest Indo-European wave—have reached Asia Minor earlier than the Indo-European Hittites (about 300o B.c.?). The language of this vanguard of the later Hittites was destroyed to a greater degree by the influence of the autochthonous tongues of Asia Minor than was the case with that of the true Hittites. On the contrary these Indo-European languages have also influenced the autochthonous tongues of Asia Minor, as is shown by the Indo European elements in Lycian, Lydian, Etruscan, etc. Luish ap pears to have been spoken in the Khatti kingdom—so far indeed as they did not use Khattish—by the peasants; their language was accounted barbaric by the Hittites. (It is also interesting that the employees, priests and workmen of the royal palace in Khatti-Khattushash were Khattish, its fire-men however 'Ash.) Khurrish.—Besides the Hittite, Khattish and Luish, still an other language has been revealed by the inscriptions at Boghaz keui—Khurrish (Hittite khurlili), which is thus named after a people, empire and, apparently, also a city Khurri. The country Khurri (which properly means "hollows, caverns"), must be looked for in North Mesopotamia and the bordering Armenian mountains. The name both of this country and its people was formerly read as Kharri which, graphically, was also possible. The Mitanni country, the later Mygdonia on the rivers Djaghdjagh and Khabur in North Mesopotamia, formed one part of the Khurri country. Because the Aryan deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya are named in the political treaties of Mitanni, Winckler associated the name Kharri with that of the Aryans. However, Hrozny has shown that the character khar, khur in the name Khar-ri can only be read khur, and this name itself therefore only Khur-ri; this is proved by the place-name Bad-Khu u-ur-lu-ush-sha (in the inscription Bo. 434), that is "The fortress of the Khurri people," where only the reading with u is possible. (Compare also the proper name Hu-u-ur-lu-u [i.e., "the Khur rite"] in the inscription Transact. of the Amer. Phil. Assoc. 58, p. 24, 2. Hrozny regards the North Mesopotamian town Urfa, Gr. Orrhoe, Edessa, as the centre of the empire of Khurri. The name of this town and country in Aramaic is Ur/ioi, '"K, in Arabic ar-Ru/ia'u; compare also the Arabes Orrhoei or Orroei of Pliny [n.h. V. 85, VI. 25, 117, t29] . In the letter of Tushratta composed in Mittanish the Khurri country is called Khur vukhe or Khurrukhe, i.e., the Khurrish. To a Hurruhe, which may have been spoken with a weak can easily be traced Urhoi, Orr hoe [country Orrhoene, later changed into Osroene] ; comp. Kha bur, Gr. Khaboras and also Aborras. In Assyrian Urfa seems to be called Khurra [in an inscription of Adadnarqri I.] . As the name probably means "cavern[s]," it is perhaps possible to suppose that Khurra-Urfa received this name on account of the numerous caverns in the Nimrud Dagh of the surrounding country.) As Hrozny has shown, the Khurrish language is not related to Aryan tongues, but to the entirely non-Aryan and non-Indo European speech of Mitanni, which is represented by a long letter of the king Tushratta of Mitanni from Tell el-Amarna. The two languages are probably distinguished only by very slight dialectical differences. When, in Khurri-Mitanni the nom. sing. ends in -sh (as well as in -1), and the accus. in -it, the influence of the Aryan speech of the Khurri-Mitanni country (see below), can be per ceived in it and, in some degree perhaps also that of Hittite. The genitive endings -ve and -khe, and the plural ending -na are, on the contrary, native to the language. When a genitive is dependent on a substantive, it receives also the ending of that substantive : ilani-na Shamukhakhi-na, "the gods of the city Shamukha." This phenomenon occurs also in some Caucasian languages, especially in Old Georgian and Cakhurish (Bork). But no definite conclu sion can be based as yet upon this isolated phenomenon. Wholly non-Indo-European also is the Khurrish-Mitannish verb which Messerschmidt, Bork, Forrer and Ungnad have studied care fully. In any case Khurrish and Khattish are not related. The following are chosen as examples of Khurrish-Mitannish words: shena, brother ; ashte, wife ; tivi, word ; katiu, I will proclaim (Ungnad). The following specimen of the language may be quoted : Teshubbutte shilallukhi shdla abkijave annun mirzi annunmdn irdne annun gaggari, etc.
Khurrish litanies and prayers occur in the Hittite rituals but, unfortunately, without Hittite translations, and Khurrish singers (singers of the city Khurri) also sang in the religious services. This is the case especially in the eastern Khatti provinces, in Kizvatna and in the city Shamukha, situated somewhere in Com magene or Melitene. But also in Shamukha were found Hittites and Khatti.
A mixed population of Hittite, Khatti and Khurri was distrib uted throughout Syria, while in Khurri (Orrhoene and South Armenia) and Mitanni (Mygdonia) the Khurrish-Mitannish were the preponderating race. Occasionally Khurri is synonymous with Syria generally. The country Kharu, more exactly Kizer of the Egyptian inscriptions, as also the Old Testament people, the Khorites (until now usually considered to be "dwellers in the caverns") who, according to Gen. xiv. 6, Deut. ii. 12 and 22, inhabited the land of Edom before the Edomites, is identical with this Khurri. The Khurri-Khorites also belong, like the Khatti, to the large-nosed Armenoid race which has influenced, physically, the later Semitic (Assyrian, Hebrew, etc.) and Indo European (Armenian) population of these countries. Not a little literature must have been written in Khurrish, as the fragments of the Gilgamesh epic and also other poetical texts in the same tongue, found in Boghazkeui, testify. Ungnad suggests the name Subarian for Mitannish (and Khurrish), derived from the geo graphical term Subartu used for the countries lying north and north-west of Babylonia.
In the Boghazkeui inscriptions a language of the country Pald (paldumnili) is mentioned occasionally. This must be sought, perhaps, somewhere in Syria (?) . Unfortunately, no sure records of this language have, so far, come to light. Two insignificant fragments, published by Forrer, if really written in Pala, suggest perhaps a Luish-Khattish mixed language.
If, as suggested above, Hittite, Khattish, Luish and Khurrish were spoken in the Hittite area, and if the cuneiform writing was used for all these languages, it is very likely to suppose, that also in the monumental writing of the Hittites, that is in the Hittite hieroglyphs, several languages—presumably Hittite, Khattish and Khurrish—occur. If so, the decipherment of this script be comes still more difficult, since the language in which any given inscription is written must first be determined.
Aryans (Earliest Indians) in Syria and Mesopotamia.— The Boghazkeui inscriptions show that, besides the Hittites and the Luish, there was also in the second millennium B.C. another Indo-European people within the Hittite area : an Aryan conquer ing people which formed the governing class in the kingdoms of Khurri and Mitanni and—probably in consequence of a former expansion of the Khurri kingdom in Syria-Palestine—not seldom supplied Syrian and Palestinian cities with their Dynasties. In the treaty of the Hittite king Shuppiluliumash (cir. 138o B.c.) with the king of Mitanni, Mattivaza, among the gods of Mitanni, also the gods Mitrashshil (Mitra gods), Arunashsliil (Aruna gods), Indara and Nashattijanna are invoked as witnesses of the oath, which are surely identical with the Indian gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya. In the Boghazkeui archives four tablets (origi nally there were still more) have also been discovered of a manual written in Hittite on the management of horses and chariot races of which a certain Kikkuli from Mitanni was the author, and in which expressions used in chariot racing in Indian language occur: aikavartanna "in one turning," teravartanna "in three turnings," panzavartanna "in five turnings," shattavartanna "in seven turn ings," etc. (comp. old Indian eka-1t, one, trdy-ah, three, panca, five, saptci, seven, vdrtanam, the turning). In addition the inscrip tions mention a class of military nobility, the so-called mariannu who play an important role in Syria and Khurri-Mitanni, and whose name is derived from the old Indian "young man, hero." Finally, in the inscriptions of Tell el-Amarna and Boghaz keui, names of Palestinian, Syrian and Mesopotamian kings and princes, of Aryan character, are preserved as, for example, the names of the kings of Khurri and Mitanni, Artatama (probably old Indian Rta-tama, "the most pious"), Tushratta, Mattivaza, the name of the Palestinian prince Shubandu (old-Indian su-bandhu = "who has good kinsmen"), and others.
It is to be supposed, that in the course of their wandering to India the earliest Indians, or, at least, a part of them, touched Mesopo tamia and Syria, where the Khurri-Mitanni kingdom was their centre, in the second and even the third millennium B.C. At the present time, Kretschmer pleads for a longer sojourn of all Indians in Near Asia particularly on the ground of his hypothesis that the Indians borrowed the deities Varuna and Indra from the Hittites; cf. the Hittite arunash, sea, and the Hittite god Inar, Inarash. (That the Hittites had a god of the sea Arunash, whose name was in the cuneiform writing written with the determinative for gods, is now shown—[which could not have been known to Prof. Kretschmer]—by the text Keilschr.-Urk. aus Bogh. XX., I, 32 and 2, 5, and also by Bo. 3206, II. 16.) On the other hand the Hittite god Aknish or Agnish, discovered by Hrozny (Rev. d'assyr. 1921) may perhaps have been derived from the old Indian god of fire Agni. Iranians also may have taken part in this im migration of Aryan stock in the Near Asia. Forrer's proposal to name the Aryan language of Khurri-Mitanni as Mandaean is im possible, for even if the name "Manda-people, Manda-warriors" of the paragraph S4 of the Hittite Codex of Laws really denoted the Aryans of Khurri-Mitanni, the Assyrian-Babylonian collective expression Umman-Manda "troops of peoples" for the hostile, mostly—as it is to be supposed—Indo-European north peoples obviously could not be employed to designate the speech only of one of these peoples. It is also doubtful if the name of the coun try Mitanni (also Metan?) has anything to do with the Medes. On the other hand it is sure that the horse which appears in Near Asia somewhere about 200o B.c., was there introduced by the Aryans now in question.