VICTOR EMMANUEL II. (182o-1878), king of Sardinia and first king of Italy, was born at Turin on March 14, 182o, and was the son of Charles Albert, prince of Savoy-Carignano. Brought up in the bigoted and chilling atmosphere of the Pied montese court, he received a rigid military and religious training, but little intellectual education. In 1842 he married Adelaide, daughter of the Austrian Archduke Rainer. Victor Emmanuel played no part in politics during his father's lifetime, but took an active interest in military matters. When the war with Austria broke out in 1848, he was delighted at the prospect of distinguish ing himself, and was given the command of a division. At Goito he was slightly wounded and displayed great bravery, and after Custozza defended the rearguard to the last (July 25, 1848). After the defeat at Novara on March 23, Charles Albert, having rejected the peace terms offered by the Austrian field-marshal Radetzky, abdicated in favour of his son. Victor Emmanuel was received by Radetzky with every sign of respect and the field marshal offered not only to waive the claim that Austria should occupy a part of Piedmont, but to give him an extension of ter ritory, provided he revoked the new Piedmontese constitution granted by Charles Albert in March 1848, and substituted the old blue Piedmontese flag for the Italian tricolour, which savoured too much of revolution. But the young king rejected the offer, and had to agree to the temporary Austrian occupa tion of part of his territories and of half the citadel of Ales sandria, to disband his Lombard, Polish and Hungarian volun teers, and to withdraw his fleet from the Adriatic ; but he secured an amnesty for all the Lombards compromised in the recent revolution, having even threatened to go to war again if it were not granted. It was the maintenance of the constitution in the face of the overwhelming tide of reaction that established his position as the champion of Italian freedom and earned him the sobriquet of Re Galantuomo (the honest king). But the task entrusted to him was a most difficult one. Parliament having re jected the peace treaty, the king dissolved the assembly; in the famous proclamation from Moncalieri he appealed to the people's loyalty, and the new Chamber ratified the treaty (Jan. 9, 185o). This same year, Cavour (q.v.) was appointed minister of agri culture in D'Azeglio's cabinet, and in 1852 became prime minister.
In having Cavour as his chief adviser Victor Emmanuel was most fortunate, and but for that statesman's astounding diplo matic genius the liberation of Italy would have been impossible. The years from 185o to 1859 were devoted to restoring the shat tered finances of Sardinia, reorganizing the army and modernizing the antiquated institutions of the kingdom. Among other re forms the abolition of the foro ecclesiastico (privileged ecclesias tical courts) brought down a storm of hostility from the Church both on the king and on Cavour, but both remained firm in sus taining the prerogatives of the civil power. When the Crimean War broke out, the king strongly supported Cavour in the pro posal that Sardinia should join France and England against Rus sia so as to secure a place in the councils of the great powers and establish a claim on them for eventual assistance in Italian affairs (1854). In 1855, while the allied troops were still in the East, Victor Emmanuel visited Paris and London, where he was warmly welcomed by the Emperor Napoleon III. and by Queen Victoria, as well as by the peoples of the two countries.
Victor Emmanuel's object now was the expulsion of the Aus trians from Italy and the expansion of Sardinia into a North Italian kingdom, but he did not regard the idea of Italian unity as coming within the sphere of practical politics for the time being, although a movement to that end was already beginning to gain ground. With this end in view he entered into communica
tion with some of the conspirators, especially with La Farina, the leader of the Society Nazionale, and even communicated with Mazzini and the republicans. In 1859 Cavour's diplomacy suc ceeded in drawing Napoleon III. into an alliance against Austria, although the king had to agree to the cession of Savoy and pos sibly of Nice and to the marriage of his daughter Clothilde to the emperor's cousin Prince Napoleon. These conditions were very painful to him, but he was always ready to sacrifice his own personal feelings for the good of his country. He had an inter view with Garibaldi and appointed him commander of the newly raised volunteer corps, the Cacciatori delle Alpi. Even then Na poleon would not decide on immediate hostilities, and it required all Cavour's genius to bring him to the point and lead Austria, into a declaration of war (April 1859). Although the Franco Sardinian forces were successful in the field, Napoleon, fearing an attack by Prussia and disliking the idea of a too powerful Italian kingdom on the frontiers of France, insisted on making peace with Austria, while Venetia still remained to be freed. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he could not continue the cam paign alone, agreed to the armistice of Villafranca. When Cavour heard the news he hurried to the king's headquarters at Mon zambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful language implored him to continue the campaign at all hazards. But the king on this occasion showed great political insight and saw that by adopt ing the heroic course proposed by the latter he ran the risk of finding Napoleon on the side of the enemy, whereas by waiting all might be gained. Cavour resigned office, and by the peace of Ziirich (Nov. io, 1859) Austria ceded Lombardy to Sardinia, but retained Venetia; the central Italian princes who had been deposed by the revolution were to be reinstated, and Italy formed into a confederation of independent states. But this solu tion was most unacceptable to Italian public opinion, and both the king and Cavour determined to assist the people in prevent ing its realization, and consequently entered into relations with the revolutionary governments of Tuscany, the duchies and of Romagna. As a result of the events of 1859-60, those provinces were all annexed to Piedmont, and when Garibaldi decided on the Sicilian expedition Victor Emmanuel secretly assisted him. He had considerable influence over Garibaldi, who, although in theory a republican, was greatly attached to the bluff soldier king. When Garibaldi having conquered Sicily was determined to invade the mainland possessions of Francis II. of Naples, Vic tor Emmanuel, foreseeing international difficulties, wrote to the chief of the red shirts asking him not to cross the straits; but Garibaldi, although acting throughout in the name of his majesty, refused to obey and continued his victorious march, for he knew that the king's letter was dictated by diplomatic considerations rather than by his own personal desire. Then, on Cavour's ad vice, King Victor decided to participate himself in the occupation of Neapolitan territory, lest Garibaldi's doubtful entourage should proclaim the republic or create anarchy. When he accepted the annexation of Romagna offered by the inhabitants themselves the pope excommunicated him, but, although a devout Catholic, he continued in his course undeterred by ecclesiastical thunders, and led his army in person through the Papal States, occupying the Marches and Umbria, to Naples. On Oct. 29 he met Gari baldi, who handed over his conquests to the king. On Feb. 18, 1861, the parliament proclaimed him king of united Italy.