In its general aspect the whole character of the civilization recalls that of central Europe. Art is still in its infancy, and decoration is entirely confined to a few geometric motives. Even on the pottery, which affords the greatest scope for decoration, the only schemes of ornament are incised rectilinear patterns of the simplest kind.
All over Europe the same geometric school of design is dominant at this period. The first traces of naturalism in Italy begin to appear on a few rare pieces of imported pottery brought in from the Aegean during the 8th century, and on Etruscan bronze work of the same period.
The everyday life of the Villanovans may to some extent be estimated by the products of their tombs and dwellings. It may be inferred that they lived in small villages composed of wattle and daub huts roofed with wooden beams. Their clothing was of a thick material, doubtless wool spun from the fleeces of their own sheep on their own bronze distaffs and spindles. It was fastened with strong fibulae of bronze, or, in the later periods, of iron. These fibulae, often decorated with pieces of bone, amber or glass, follow a distinct course of evolution, which is a great help in tracing the stages of chro nology. The Villanovans were well ac quainted with the horse—bronze bits are very frequent even in the earliest ceme teries—but there is no evidence that they used chariots, which were first introduced by the Etruscans. That they were of war
like character is amply proved by the con stant occurrence of swords, battle-axes and daggers. Defensive armour, however, was rare and confined to the use of helmets.
The practice of hunting is vouched for by the bones of wild animals found in the ashes of the funeral feasts, and the occur rence of sheep and oxen shows familiarity with the farm.
As manufacturers these tribes were important principally for their metal-work. Pottery was made everywhere, but only for use in Italy, and seldom exported even to a neighbouring corn munity. Until the 7th century it was all hand-made, but about 700 B.C. the wheel was introduced and with it came new processes of decoration. By the 7th century, however, the only Villanovans who retained their independence were the northern branch about Bologna. All Etruria and Latium had now been conquered by the Etruscans; but north of the Apennines the Bolognese continued to develop their provincial life without any interference from the foreigner. They entered, however, into peaceful trade relations with their new neighbours and acquired an occasional ornament or