Western Australia covers such a wide area that several distinct climatic regions are included in it, though obser vations for considerable areas are scanty or lacking. (a) The north has a "monsoon" climate, with prevailing high temps. (85°-70°), a markedly summer rainfall (November–April with max. December, January, February) brought by depressions ("lows") from the tropical seas to the north-west. The rains are heavier in the north and tail off southwards and they are irregular and often torrential, causing severe floods in the valleys; (b) the north-west, lying south-west from the above, is characterized by its high summer temps.—there is a large area with averages over 9o° ; by its long and severe heat spells—at Marble Bar temps. over ioo° have been recorded on 103 consecutive days—and by an extremely erratic rainfall (10-2o in.). Thus in the north rain falls mainly Jan.–March but further south winter rains pre dominate and these reach occasionally as far north as Broome. This region is visited in summer, but at irregular intervals (45 during 5o years) by intensely developed cyclonic depressions coming from the north-west ("Willy-Willies"). The Cossack and Onslow areas in particular suffer from their destructive violence. (c) the South-western "winter-rain" region comprises most of the south-west of the State. Temperatures here range from 50°-8o° with occasional short heat-spells, though condi tions are progressively less equable towards the interior. The weather is dominated by the passage (west–east) of large anti cyclonic (high-pressure) and cyclonic (low-pressure) systems which involve variations (chiefly short-period) of temperature, wind-direction, etc. Occasional rains penetrate southwards from the north and fall in summer, but the chief rainfall is brought by the "lows" from the Indian Ocean and this falls in winter (May– Oct.) and is relatively reliable. (d) Of the vast interior little definite is known, but of the more settled portions it may be said in general that they partake of the character of the areas described and form inland extensions of them. (See KALGOORLIE.) Rainfall, however, decreases to io in. or (ay. ann.) less and it also becomes less reliable. The range of temperature (ann. and diurnal) becomes greater (up to 3o° or more), and in parts the climatic conditions become those of a desert. This desert approaches the coast in the north-west and runs thence broadening in an east and south-east direction into the winter rainfall area, the rather higher (average) rainfall in the north being counteracted by higher temperatures. Of the Western Aus tralian climate it may be said that, in spite of the heat, dryness, humidity and dust which afflict parts in various degrees and sea sons, in general it is not unhealthy.
Most of the State is clothed, though unevenly, with vegetation, even arid portions having some scrub, heath, or wiry grasses. In the north (Kimberley Divisions) the coastal lowlands, river valleys and ranges carry in parts patches of forest which may contain some useful timber. But the predominant type is grassland with trees, savanna adapted to the annual dry season. Inland and southwards, as rainfall diminishes, this type degenerates into scrub and passes into the scrub ("desert gums") and spinifex of the sandier in terior. Along part of the north-west coast lies a belt of grass lands backed by scrub which affords useful grazing, and man groves, common farther north, line parts of the coast here also. But farther south the poor country approaches close to the coast (see above, Climate), and from hereabouts stretches south eastwards into the little-known east-central interior the scrub and spinifex type which at best has poor pastoral value. On the southern side of this poor belt in the north-west "shoulder" of the State (Ashburton, etc.), a better type of scrublands begins to appear and south and east from the Gascoyne River (i.e., from the beginning of the regular winter rainfall area) begins the mulga pastoral country possessing also good sub-surface waters. This extends south-eastwards inland to c. lat. 29° S. where it passes over into the beginnings of the southern forest country— the Salmon gum open-forest lands of the Kalgoorlie, etc. gold fields. This forest has proved invaluable to the mining industry by supplying mining timber and fuel. In the south-western cor ner of the continent—i.e., the portion lying south-west of a line running approximately from Sharks bay (c. lat. 25° S.) to near Israelite bay (c. lat. 33° S.; long. 124° E.)—the belts of vege tation, as indicated above, appear to follow rather closely the belts of (winter) rainfall. Thus the gold-fields forest (Morrell— Salmon gum) passes southwards, in the belt of 10-20 in. ay. ann. rainfall, into the mallee, jam and wandoo forests farther south-west, though mallee and saltbush country prevail towards the southern (Bight) coast. The prevailing types are now euca •lyptus—the "jam" is an acacia—and the belts referred to (jam, wandoo, York gum, marri or red gum) form a transition zone in which trees of increasingly better growth pass over into the real forest area of the State. This lies S.W. of (approxi mately) the 15 in. rainfall line and is c. 35o miles long and 50 10o m. wide, about 5 of the total forested area of the State (i.e., c. 20,000,000 out of c. ioo.000,000 ac.) being contained herein, though probably only some 3,000,00o acres carry mer chantable timber. A line drawn from about Gingin to rather east of Albany marks off what is perhaps the most valuable timber area in Australia. Here the distribution of types is
markedly dependent upon rainfall and soils. Behind the immedi ate coastal fringe in the south lie, in the areas of 40-3o in. rain fall, c. 250,00o ac. of karri forest composed of handsome giants 200-250 ft. in height yielding tough wood valuable, when "powell ised," for constructional purposes. etc. From near Busselton to about Marginiup (N. of Fremantle) the 5 m. wide strip of coastal limestones supports tuart (average height c. 15o ft.) growing in more open formation. But the greater part of the area (4o-25 in. rainfall) north of the karri forests is occupied mainly by jarrah interspersed with marri (c. 8,000,000 ac., of which some 2,750,000 ac. are commercially useful). The jarrah prefers lateritic soils and the trees, which in good areas average Ioo ft. in height, yield first-class hardwood resistant to weather ing and insects which is in demand for paving-blocks, piers and other out-door constructional purposes. The area "dedicated" to forests has been recently largely extended (1,832,000 ac.) and a total of 3,000,00o ac. is aimed at. Vigorous measures are now being taken to control and regenerate the timber reserves and the planting of pines (soft-woods) on a large scale has been commenced (e.g., Mundaring and South Perth). Saw-milling is an important industry. In 1925-26 some 329 million super ft. were cut, much of the product being used locally but consider able quantities are exported abroad largely through Bunbury (q.v.). Other forest products are sandalwood, a shrub (c. 18 ft. high) which grows sporadically upon sandy soils over much of the south-west interior. It yields a wood especially valued in China, to which it is exported, and also an essential oil. Mallet bark has valuable tanning properties. Wasteful exploitation caused production to decline, but reforestation is now in progress. (See also AUSTRALIA: Forestry, and below. Statistical Survey s.v. Manufacturing Industries, in which "Wood-working" refers largely to saw-milling; also s.v. Trade: exports.) Mining.—This industry has declined greatly in recent years. Western Australia (1926) was the second largest producer of minerals (after New South Wales) but the value of her total output was relatively small (L2,372,000, cf. New South Wales, £16,319,000), the number of men employed had fallen to 5,437, and mineral exports represented only 10.9% of the total value of exports (cf. 1903 : 84.5%). Gold is the most important mineral produced (68.25% of the Commonwealth total). Most of the well-known fields are still being worked but the Cool gardie, Mount Margaret and Murchison areas were by far the most important (e.g., E. Coolgardie gold-field: 5o% of miners, and 73% of output, of gold in State). More recently there have been indications of a slight revival in Western Australian mining and great prospects undoubtedly lie before the Wiluna gold-field (q.v.). Coal: The only field being worked (1927) was at Collie (7 collieries producing 5oi,000 tons). The coal is consumed within the State (largely by railways), the coal reserves being a particular boon in view of Western Australia's position and her relative shortness of power resources. Recent borings for oil in the north (Kimberley Division) though inconclusive give some promise. (See also : AUSTRALIA : Minerals; Mining and Metallurgy. Also KALGOORLIE ; and below, Statistical Survey: Production; Mining [giving figures for 1927] ; Exports; above, Water-supply.) Land Settlement, Agriculture, Dairying, etc.—Western Australia, though founded as a colony as early as 1829, grew slowly and in 1890 when it became a self-governing State the population was only 46,29o. The gold-boom of the "nineties" nearly quadrupled this total (1900: 179,708). Thereafter came a lull, followed by a decline owing to the war of 1914-18. At present the population is again increasing steadily (1927-28: c. 15,o0o). These statistics are significant in that they reveal the vital factors controlling Western Australian development. In 1914 Western Australia had barely begun to emerge from the more purely pastoral and mining regime which formed the earlier stage in the development of most Australian States. She is now fully launched upon a course of intensive land settlement. She is attracting men and capital not only from overseas but from her Eastern neighbours; the area of occupied lands is rapidly expanding—during each of the last two years, 1926-27 and 1927-28, some 13 million ac. of new lands were taken up (1927-28: conditional purchase and farms: c. 418,000 ac.; grazing and pastoral leases: 12,823,000 ac.) and the progress continues. The "3,000 farm scheme" now being inaugurated is "probably the largest single (land-settlement) scheme which has ever been undertaken by a Government in Australia." It aims at establishing 3.000-3,500 new 1,50o ac. wheat-and-wool farms in the block of country (c. 12,500 sq.m. or 8,000,000 ac.) which lies southwards from Southern Cross and the main (gold-fields) railway line. eastwards of the Esperance–Norseman railway line and west of the existing rail-heads in the South-western Division. Some 600 miles of railway line and 6,000 m. of roads, besides, large water-conservation works, will be required and some L8,0oo,000 expenditure will be involved of which the Common wealth and British Governments will supply shares.