Norman Policy.—Rufus resumed his designs on Normandy at the first opportunity. Robert reproached his brother with non fulfilment of the terms arranged in 1o91; and Rufus seized the excuse for a second invasion of the duchy (1094). But Robert resolved to go upon a crusade and, to obtain the necessary funds, gave Normandy in pledge to his brother (1o96). The interests of Normandy at once became the first consideration of Rufus's policy. In 1 o98-99 he recovered Maine, and commenced opera tions for the recovery of the Vexin. Early in 11oo he accepted a proposal, made by William IX. of Aquitaine, that he should take over that duchy on terms similar to those arranged in the case of Normandy. Contemporaries were startled at the rapid progress of the king's ambitions, and saw the direct interposition of heaven in the fate which cut them short. On Aug. 2, Rufus fell, in the New Forest, the victim of an arrow from an unknown hand. The common story names Walter Tirel, who was certainly close at hand and fled the country without venturing to abide the issue of a trial. But a certain Ralph of Aix was also accused; and Tirel, from a safe distance, solemnly protested his innocence.
It remains to notice the main features of the domestic ad ministration which made the names of William and his minister, Ralph Flambard, infamous. We are told that the "moots" all over England were "driven" in the interests of the king; which perhaps means that aids were extorted from the shire-courts. We also learn that the forest-laws were rigorously administered; that the king revived, for certain offences, the death-penalty which his father had abolished ; that all men were vexed by unjust gelds and the feudal classes by unscrupulous misinterpretations of the customs relating to the incidents of wardship, marriage and relief. On one occasion the militia were summoned in considerable numbers for a Norman expedition, which was no part of their duty; but when they arrived at the sea-coast they were bidden to hand over their journey money and go home. The incident is not uninstructive as a side-light on the king's finance. As to the oppression of the church we are more fully informed ; after allowing for exaggeration there still remains evidence enough to prove that the ecclesiastical policy of Rufus was unscrupulously venal.
In appearance William II. was unattractive ; bull-necked, with sloping shoulders, extremely corpulent and awkward in his gait. His long locks and clean-shaven face marked his predilection for the new-fangled fashions which contemporary ecclesiastics were never weary of denouncing. His features were strongly marked and coarse, his eyes grey and deeply set ; he owed his nickname to the fiery hue of his complexion. He stuttered violently and in moments of passion was almost inarticulate. His familiar con versation was witty and blasphemous. He was surrounded by a circle of vicious parasites, and no semblance of decorum was maintained in his household. His character was assailed by the darkest rumours which he never attempted to confute. He died unmarried and without issue.
WILLIAM III. (1650-17o2), king of England and prince of Orange, was the only son of William II., prince of Orange, stadt holder of the Dutch republic, and Mary, daughter of Charles I. of England, and was born at The Hague on Nov. 4, 1650, eight days after his father's death. His father had attempted a coup d'etat, which had failed, with the result that on his death the office of stadtholder was abolished. Power passed into the hands of John de Witt, who represented the oligarchic element and the special interests of one province, Holland, and was taken from the Orange party which represented the more democratic element and the more general interests of the Seven Provinces. William grew up among enemies, and learned to conceal his feeling behind the mask of an immobile, almost repulsive, coldness. Like Charles XII. of Sweden and the younger Pitt, he was a wonderful example of premature mental development.
Stadtholdership.—In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly invaded Dutch territory. The Dutch people turned for help to the prince of Orange. On July 8, 1672 the states general revived the stadt holderate, and declared William stadtholder, captain-general and admiral for life. This revolution was followed by a riot, in which John de Witt and his brother Cornelius were murdered by the mob at The Hague. Evidence may be sought in vain to connect William with the outrage, but he lavishly rewarded its leaders and promoters. The cold cynicism with which he acted towards de Witt is only matched by the heroic obstinacy with which he con fronted Louis. He rejected all thought of surrender and appealed to the last resource of Dutch patriotism by opening the sluices and laying vast tracts under water. The French army could not advance, while the French and English fleets were defeated by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter. William summoned Branden burg to his aid (1672) and made treaties with Austria and Spain (5673). In August 1674 he fought his first great battle at Seneffe, where the honours lay with Conde. The French evacuated Dutch territory early in 1674, but continued to hold places on the Rhine and in Flanders. In April 1677 William was badly beaten at St. Omer, but he secured a diplomatic victory by his marriage, in November 1677, with Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II. He undertook negotiations with England in the following year which forced Louis to make terms and sign the treaty of Nijmwegen in August 5678, which gave Franche Comte and other places in Spanish Flanders to France.