Witchcraft

The assemblies or "Sabbaths" took place four times a year; on Feb. 2 (Candlemas), May-eve (known later as Roodmas), Aug. 1 (Lammas), and November-eve (All Hallow E'en). To these joyous meetings came all the worshippers, from far and near, to the number of many hundreds, old and young, men, women and children, till the scene was like a great fair with dancing and singing and feasting. The celebrations began in the evening, lasted all night, and ended at dawn. These were the great Sabbaths, and the dates show that the year was divided at May and November. This division shows that the religion dates back to a primitive period, probably before the introduction of agriculture though of ter the domestication of animals, for the festivals emphasize the seasons of the breeding of animals. There were, however, smaller meetings (known in France as "esbats"), which took place weekly or at short irregular intervals. To these came the principal members of the cult, who held a position analogous to the priesthood. There were in each district a band of such persons, in number 13, i.e., a chief or "devil" and 12 members. This band was known as a "Coven." They celebrated the religious rites, they practised as healers under the leadership and instruction of their divine master, and were the consultants in all cases where "witchcraft" was required. The earliest record of a Coven is in the Handlyng Synne, a work of the early 14th century, in which the (Christian) priest's daughter and 12 "fools" danced in the churchyard as a coueyne. The next record is in the sth century in the trial of Gilles de Rais, where it is apparent that he and his associates were 13 in number in the practice of their rites. In the later trials the word Coven is continually used, and the number in a Coven is always 13.

One of the most impressive and important rites was the sacri fice of the god, which took place at intervals of seven or nine years. The accounts suggest that the sacrifice was by fire (for similar sacrifices see Frazer's Golden Bough).

The Familiars.—There are two kinds of familiars, the divin ing familiar and the domestic familiar. The divining familiar is common to the whole of Europe and is found in all records of the trials. In ancient Rome divination by animals, especially by birds, was known as "Augury" (q.v.), and was considered a legitimate means of learning the future, but when it was prac tised by "witches" in the 16th and 17th centuries their persecutors claimed that they were inspired by the Devil. As a rule the witches were instructed by their chief in the method of divining by animals, and he usually appointed the class of animal which each witch was to use. Thus Agnes Sampson of North Berwick divined by dogs, so also did Elizabeth Style in Somerset ; John Walsh of Netherberry in Dorset had "a gray blackish culver," and Alexander Hamilton in Lothian divined by a "corbie" or a cat. In France the familiar was always a toad, which was con sulted before going on a journey or undertaking any enterprise.

Spells and Charms

(q.v.).—Forms of words with manual gestures are used in all countries and in all periods to produce results which cannot be obtained by physical means. They may be used for good or evil purposes, for the benefit of the user or for the benefit of someone else. A good harvest, a good catch of fish, a favourable wind for a ship, victory over an enemy, could all be obtained by formulae of words addressed to the appro priate power. But as the power was always incomprehensible, not to say freakish, it was necessary that it should be approached by those who knew the right methods. Sacrifice (q.v.) in the

temples of the ancient civilization was among the means to pro pitiate the god and render him favourable to the petitions of his worshippers. When, however, there was more than one god, it is obvious that if a prayer were ineffectual in one temple nothing could be easier than to petition another deity.

Among the ritual methods to destroy an enemy one of the most ancient as well as the most dramatic was the making of an image, generally in wax, to represent the enemy, and gradually destroying it. The earliest record of this charm is in the trial of some women and officers of the harem of Rameses III. in Egypt, about 11 oo B.C. They made wax images of the Pharaoh with magical incantations, but unfortunately the record gives only the outline of the trial without details.

Transformation into Animals (see LVCANTHROPY).—The belief that certain persons can transform themselves into animals is common to all parts of the world. The power belongs to the shaman or priest. A wound inflicted on a human being when in animal shape is believed to be visible when the person resumes his human form. The method of transformation was by putting on the skin of the animal, as did Sigmund the Volsung when he became a wolf. This being the case, it is obvious that the wounds received by the transformed person must certainly have remained when he returned to his proper shape.

The Suppression of Witchcraft.

In comparing the witches and witch-cult of the middle ages with the rites and beliefs of pagan religions, whether ancient or modern, it becomes abund antly clear that in Europe traces of the ancient heathenism sur vived the adoption of Christianity. It was only when the new religion had gained sufficient strength that it ventured to try con clusions with the old. Backed by the civil law, it overcame the old religion, not only by persuasion but by the use of force, just as it destroyed the ancient religion of Egypt and in later times the religion of the Aztecs. That the old religion was not an ordinary heresy is clearly shown by the fact that in England, Scotland, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands and in New England in the days of Cotton Mather, the clergy as well as the laity hunted down and brought to trial and death persons suspected of witchcraft. For particulars of the Salem witchcraft delusion, see SALEM.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For

general works, see N. Remy, Daemonolatrie (Lyons, 1595) ; Lecky's Hist. of Rationalism in Europe, vol. i. (new ed., 1910) ; H. Williams, Superstitions of Witchcraft (i865); J. Baissac, Les grands _Tours de la Sorcellerie (1890) ; W. G. Soldan, Gesch. der Hexenprozesse (new ed., 191o) ; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (new ed., 5920) ; M. A. Murray, Witchcraft in West. Europe (1921) ; J. W. Wickwar, Witchcraft and the Back Art (1925) ; M.

Summers, Hist. of Witchcraft and Demonology (1926), Geog. of Witchcraft (1927) and (ed.), J. Sprenger and H. Institoris, Malletus Maleficarum (1928). For ENGLAND, see J. Glanvil, Sadducismus Tri umphatus (1681) ; R. Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) ; W. Notestein, Hist. of Witchcraft in England Ow I) ; SCOTLAND: Pitcairn, Criminal Trials (4 vols., 1830-33) ; FRANCE: Boguet, Discours des Sor ciers (16o8) ; P. de Lancre, Tableau de l'Inconstance des mauvais Anges (1612) and l'Incredulite et Mescreance du Sortilege (1622) ; Bodin, Fleau des Demons (1616) ; J. Garinet, Hist. de la Magie en France (1818) ; BELGIUM: Cannaert, Proces des Sorcieres en Belgique (1847) ; ITALY: C. G. Leland, Aradia (1899) ; AMERICA: Burr (ed.), Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases (1914)• (M. A. M.)