BUILDING. A building is that which is built ; and the term is also used to cover the practical activities necessary for the erection and maintenance of structures, built where they are to stand, for the shelter or use of human beings.
Developments in Building up to Recent Times.—The genesis of constructional forms adopted in modern building must be sought in the solution of building problems in the past. Forms of early construction have been modified as technical knowledge and trade skill have increased. To understand the origin and sig nificance of these changes requires a brief survey of the develop ment of building from mediaeval times.
To judge by the existing buildings of that period, both the technical skill of the trades and their co-ordinated efforts in the production of great buildings reached a very high level.
Among the chief factors favourable to the development of a high measure of craft skill at that period were the extremely slow development of constructional methods and the rare introduction of revolutionary changes. The resulting stability of conditions allowed a simple system of apprenticeship to develop into an instrument of education and craft training, which was of a high order in relation to the needs of the period, and helped to raise the status of the craftsman. Again, the craft gilds had monopolist powers, an essential factor in their constitution, and one that counted for efficiency in the training of apprentices and the sup pression of bad workmanship.
In spite of the controlling power of the gilds the traditional systems of training and construction did not long survive the introduction of new methods which accompanied the "foreign" styles of the Renaissance. The reactions due to these changes varied in the several European countries, but they resulted gener ally in the introduction of the professional designer ; gradually the native craftsman was displaced and his skill declined.
Profound changes in building processes followed the invention of Portland cement by Aspdin in 1825, and the subsequent inven tions of Bessemer and Siemens which helped to reduce the cost and increase the production of mild steel. The 19th century was one of great industrial expansion and constructional activity, and witnessed a steady extension of the uses of cement and steel. This extension was greatly assisted by an increased knowledge of scientific principles as applied to construction. Steel-framed buildings, reinforced concrete structures, and the increasing use of machinery both in the work-shops and during the erection of buildings are striking results of these changes. It is certain that improved methods of design, with more accurate assessment and computation of the strength and permanence of building materials, will have far-reaching results upon all branches of building in the future.
The Initiation of Building Work.—The production of build ings in civilized countries to-day is generally the result of co operation between four parties, viz., the building owner or client, the architect or professional adviser to the client (including all concerned with planning and designing), the builder (including all concerned with the actual erection of the building and the preparation of its parts), and the community, which is concerned with the public safety, the hygienic conditions and the effect of building on the amenities of a neighbourhood, always an important consideration.
Owners may range from the private individual requiring a dwelling to the large industrial, civic or national body initiating some great undertaking.
The architect may be assisted in his approach to the problem of his client by the intimate general knowledge of the require ments which his client may be expected to possess and which may, in the case of large corporate bodies, be based upon long experience of the use of buildings for a similar purpose. The architect will, however, be expected to possess special knowledge of a more particular and technical character, which may be the result of long experience in particular classes of work; e.g., works and offices for special trades and industries, banks, hotels, churches, schools, hospitals, theatres and cinemas. In the case of the larger firms of architects, the special knowledge required may be confined to one partner or responsible assistant. In Amer ica, where commercial schemes are often of abnormal size, archi tects and allied professional men, having varying specialized knowledge, work together in groups. The special advice they are able to offer frequently includes an estimate of the financial pros pects of a scheme and determines the nature of the plan and the type of construction to be utilized. Programmes formulated under such circumstances may make unusual demands upon the build ing industry, but impracticable schemes are guarded against by the fact that the architect is responsible for the supply of detailed information to the builder and for the general direction of pro cedure.
Assuming that the architect has reached the position where the actual design of the building may proceed, general plans, eleva tions and sections are prepared for the consideration of the owner, alternative schemes being sometimes considered. When approved by the client these drawings are elaborated to explain the pro posals to the local authority and to the contractors who will later be invited to compete for the execution of the work. During the preparation of a scheme the architect must give due consideration to local building by-laws, which call for the recognition of a build ing line, the provision of adequate light, open spaces of a mini mum area, proper foundations, thicknesses of walls appropriate to their height and purpose, damp-resisting provisions, and sizes of timbers in floors and roofs. For massive buildings and those of great height, difficulties may arise in regard to foundations, in volving preliminary investigations on the site to determine the nature and resistance of the natural foundation. Occasions arise in extensive and exceptional schemes where the architect requires expert assistance of a particular kind. He may then recommend the owner to employ a professional consultant to prepare or advise upon a detailed scheme for a particular branch of work. Alter natively, if a patent method of construction is proposed or a spe cial production of a particular firm is to be employed, such firms are usually willing to submit a scheme in the hope of being em ployed to execute the work or to supply the material. Specialists of this type undertake such work as structural steelwork, rein f orced-concrete work, patent floors, heating, ventilating, lighting, lifts, rolling shutters, patent glazing and equipment for specific purposes. In this respect architectural practice in Great Britain differs somewhat from that followed in America, where the larger offices often have sufficient specialists to prepare preliminary de signs for a large and complete building. These arrangements are intended to secure co-ordination and economy of effort.
When a scheme is completely arranged, steps are taken to en sure its realization. In important work a specification is provided; i.e., a document prepared by the architect, describing in detail the material and its preparation and the methods of construction to be employed in the building. At least two copies are provided, one being retained by the architect and the other used by the builder. It is appropriate at this or an earlier stage to obtain an approximate estimate of cost for the consideration of the client, the usual method being to cube the building and to apply a unit cost obtained from an analysis of actual costs of comparable buildings. For example, in the case of churches, schools and enter tainment buildings a unit price per seat is applied, and in the case of hospitals a unit price per bed.
In much modern practice a separate specification is not em ployed, but an abbreviated description of the work allotted to each trade is provided in the bill of quantities. This is prepared by a quantity surveyor, the architect himself occasionally acting in this capacity. Quantities are obtained by measurement from the plans already prepared and with the assistance of the full or abbreviated specification. The bill is so arranged that by pricing the items the builder may readily arrive at a total estimate for the proposed work. The provision of a detailed bill of quantities is usual in Great Britain, and has the advantage of defining with some exactness the amount of work intended to be done and the price for which each item will be executed. These details facili tate the settlement of accounts at a later stage, especially where variations from the original intentions have been made either by the architect or his client, or at the instance of the builder with the approval of the architect. The preparation of the bill occupies considerable time, and where work is being hurried forward or the competition is limited to a few building contractors, formal quantities are often omitted and the estimates prepared by refer ence to well detailed general drawings. This is largely done in America, where plans are specially elaborated for the purpose at an early stage.
The position has now been reached where the architect is ready for inviting "tenders," or offers to execute the work at a stated price. This may be done either by advertising in the local press and in reputable trade journals, or by inviting tenders from a limited number of selected contractors of whose work and repu tation the architect has some previous knowledge. Unless there is some special reason to the contrary, a contract is usually en tered into with the firm submitting the lowest tender, after which construction may be begun.