COPTS, the early native Christians of Egypt and their suc cessors of the Monophysite sect, now racially the purest repre sentatives of the ancient Egyptians. The name is a Europeanized f orm, dating perhaps from the i4th century, of the Arabic Kibt (or Kubt), which, in turn, is derived from the Greek At-yinrnoc "Egyptians" (the Copts in the Coptic language likewise style themselves "people of Egypt," "Egyptians"). (See EGYPT : history, language, religion.) The beginnings of Christianity in Egypt are obscure ; its ex istence among the natives (as opposed to the mixed "Greek" population of Egypt and Alexandria which produced so many leading figures and originated leading doctrines in the early church) can be traced back as far as the Decian persecution (249— 251) in the purely Egyptian names of several martyrs. St. Anthony (c. 27o) was a Copt ; so also was Pachomius, the founder of Egyptian monasticism at the beginning of the 4th century. The Scriptures were translated into Coptic not later than the 4th century. A religion founded on morality and with a clear doctrine of life after death was specially congenial to the Egyp tians; thus the lower orders in the country embraced Christianity fervently, while the Alexandrian pagans were lost in philosophical speculation and Neoplatonism was spread amongst the rich "Greek" landowners; these last, partly out of religious enthusiasm, partly from greed, annoyed and oppressed their Christian peasantry. Egypt was then terribly impoverished ; the, upper country was constantly overrun by raiders from Nubia and the desert; and the authority of the imperial government was too weak to interfere actively on behalf of the Christians. The monasteries, however, were refuges that could bid defiance to the most powerful of the pagan aristocracy as well as to barbarian hordes, and became centres of united action that, at the sum mons of Shenoute, the organizer of the national church, swept away the idols of the oppressors in riot and bloodshed. In the course of the 5th century the Christians reached a position in which they were able to treat the pagans mercifully as a feeble remnant.
The Copts had little interest in theology; they were content to take their doctrine as prepared for them by the subtler minds of their Greek leaders at Alexandria, choosing the simplest form when disputes arose. In 325 their elected patriarch, Athanasius, and his following of Greeks and Copts, triumphed at the council of Nicaea against Arius; but in 451 the banishment of Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria, by the council of Chalcedon created a great schism, the Egyptian church holding to his Monophysite tenets (see Coptic Church, below), while the Catholic and im perial party at Constantinople, called "Melkites," ever sought to further the orthodox theology of Chalcedon at the expense of the native church. Thenceforward there were generally two patriarchs, belonging to the rival communities, and the Copts were oppressed by the Melkites; Heraclius, in 638 after the repulse of the Persians, endeavoured to unite the churches, but, failing in that, he persecuted the Monophysites more severely than ever, until `Amr brought Egypt under the Moslem rule of 'Omar during the period 627-641. Under the persecution many Copts had gone over to the Melkites, but now it was the turn of the Melkites, as supporters of the emperor of Constantinople to suffer, and they almost entirely disappeared from Egypt, though a remnant headed by a patriarch of Alexandria of the Orthodox Christians has survived to this day.
After a few years of the mild rule of `Amr the Egyptians began to suffer for the benefit of the Muslim exchequer and for their religion. Many of the more thoughtful Christians had already embraced the simple and congenial doctrines of Islam; others went over for the sake of material gain. Conflicts took place between the Mohammedan minority and the Christians. The Copts were excellent scribes and accountants and were continued in their posts under the Arab rule. The pride of the Copts was a serious danger, perhaps even a chief source of their troubles, in earlier days; devout Moslems on more than one occasion stirred the mob to fury when they saw Christians lording it over "true believers." The lower orders of the Copts were continually oppressed. Thus there was every inducement amongst the Chris tians to turn Mohammedan. Arab tribes, too, were encouraged to settle in Egypt until the Mohammedans exceeded the Copts in numbers.
The history of the Copts consists on the one hand of the record of religious strife, of simony and other scandals in the church, and attempted reforms; and on the other hand of persecutions at the hands of the Muslims. In the 8th century, the monks were not only compelled to pay a capitation tax, but were branded with name and number, civilians were oppressed with heavy taxation, churches demolished, pictures and crosses destroyed (722-723). Degrading dresses were imposed upon the Christians ; later, under Hakim (997), they were compelled to wear heavy crosses and black turbans as an ignominious distinc tion. Saladin in 1 171 re-enforced these statutes and defiled the churches. In 1301, the blue turban was introduced, but many Copts preferred a change of religion to its adoption. In 1348 a religious war raged at Cairo between the Copts and Mohamme dans, and large numbers of Copts embraced Islam.
There have been very few cases of conversion from Moham medanism to Coptic Christianity; and, as intermarriage of Chris tians with Mohammedans implied conversion to Islam, the Copts have undoubtedly preserved the race of the Egyptians as it existed at the time of the Arab conquest in remarkable purity. The Coptic fellahin of Upper Egypt and elsewhere are not markedly different from the Mohammedan fellahin, who, of course, are of the same stock, but mixed with Arab blood.
In trades and professions, so long as the Copts had no foreign competition, they held their own. But, with the extension of rail ways and agricultural roads and the increased facilities of commu nication and prosperity, there has been a great influx of Italian, Greek, Armenian and other Levantine workmen, who, with their better tools, are undoubtedly superior to the Copts, and have proved formidable rivals. Furthermore, the importation of cheap European wares of every description is slowly killing all native in dustry. Lastly, when the British, as the dominant race filled most posts of responsibility in the government, the Muslims, in general, were obliged to content themselves with the subordinate posts which in the past they left to the Copts. Some Copts have attained high office, and in 1908 a Copt became prime minister. More over, the Copts have to a certain extent made up for the ground they lose elsewhere by engaging in agriculture and banking, and there are now to be found many rich Coptic landowners and farmers, especially in Upper Egypt.
Language.—The language spoken by the Copts was of various dialects, named Sahidic, Akhmimic, Fayumic, etc., descended from the ancient Egyptian with more or less admixture of Greek (for the Coptic dialects see EGYPT : Language) . Coptic, however, has been entirely extinct as a spoken language for over 200 years, having been supplanted by Arabic ; in the 13th century it was already so much decayed that Arabic translations of the liturgies were necessary. The literature is almost entirely religious, and consists mainly of translations from the Greek. Such was the enthusiasm for Christianity among the lower classes in Egypt that translations of the Bible were made into three of the dialects of Coptic before the council of Chalcedon ; they probably date back at least as early as the middle of the 4th century. Coptic was oc casionally employed for literary purposes as late as the 14th century, but from the loth century onward the Copts wrote mostly in Arabic.
The Coptic Church.—Up to the 5th century the church of Alexandria played a part in the Christian world scarcely second to that of Rome ; the names of Origen, Athanasius and Cyril bear witness to her greatness. But in the time of the patriarch Dios corus the church, always fond of speculation, was rent asunder by the controversy resulting from the doctrine of Nestorius (q.v.) that the divine and human natures of Christ were "con joined" by a moral not a metaphysical union, and the contrary doctrine of Eutyches that the divine and the human in Christ constituted a nature absolutely one. The Eutychian doctrine was condemned by the council of Chalcedon in 451. But to this de cision, though given by 636 bishops, the Copts refused assent—a refusal which profoundly affected both the religious and the political history of their country. From that moment they were treated as heretics. The emperor appointed a new bishop of Alexandria, whose adherents the Copts styled Melkites or Im perialists, while the Copts are distinguished as Monophysites and Jacobites. The opposition was national as well as theological; it was in part an opposition of the native party and the Byzantine or court party.
The distinctive Monophysite doctrine of the Copts is not easy to state intelligibly, and yet they clung to it with something of the tenacity which marked their whole history. It is set forth in the Liturgy and recited at every Coptic mass in the following words : "I believe that this is the life-giving flesh which thine only Son took from the . . . Holy Mary. He united it with His Divinity without mingling and without confusion and without alteration. . . . I believe that His Divinity was not separated from His Manhood for one moment or for the twinkling of an eye." On all other points of dogma the Copts agree with the Greek Orthodox Church.
The Hierarchy.—"The most holy pope and patriarch of the great city of Alexandria and of all the land of Egypt, of Jerusalem the holy city, of Nubia, Abyssinia and Pentapolis, and all the preaching of St. Mark," as he is still called, had originally juris diction over all the places named; but of places outside Egypt only jurisdiction over Abyssinia remains. The ancient rule is that no bishop is eligible for the patriarchate. The requirement of a period of desert life has so far prevailed that no one but a monk from one of the desert monasteries is now qualified. This rule, harmless perhaps when the monasteries were the great schools of learning and devotion, now puts a premium on ignorance, and is disastrous to the church ; more particularly as even bishops must be chosen from the monks. The patriarch is elected by an assem bly of bishops and elders. The patriarch's seat was transferred some time after the Arab conquest from Alexandria to the fortress town of Babylon (Old Cairo), and in modern times it was shifted to Cairo proper. The other orders and offices in the church are metropolitan, bishop, chief priest, priest, archdeacon, deacon, reader and monk.
Churches.—The numerous remaining churches in Egypt but faintly represent the vast number standing in ancient times. Rufinus says that he found 10,000 monks in the one region of Arsinoe. Later, in 616, the Persians are described as destroying 60o monasteries near Alexandria. Abu Salih (12th century) gives a list of churches surviving in his day, and their number is aston ishing. The earliest were cut out of rocks and caverns. In the days of Constantine and Justinian basilicas of great splendour were built, such as the church of St. Mark at Alexandria and the Red Monastery in Upper Egypt. This type of architecture permanently influenced Coptic builders, but there prevailed also a type, prob ably native in origin, though possessing Byzantine features, such as the domed roofing. There is no church now standing which bears any trace of the fine glass mosaics which once adorned the basilicas, nor is there any example of a well-defined cruciform ground-plan. But the use of the dome by Coptic architects is almost universal, and nearly every church has at least three domes overshadowing the three altars. The domes are sometimes lighted by small windows; but the walls are windowless, and the churches consequently gloomy.
Every church has three altars at the eastern end in three con tiguous chapels. The central division, the haikal or sanctuary, is always divided from the choir by a fixed partition or screen with small arched doorway closed by double doors. This resembles the Greek icrnostasis, the screen on which the sacred pictures are placed. Haikal screen and choir screen are often sumptuously carved and inlaid. A marble basin for the mandatum in the nave, and an epiphany tank at the west are common features. The altar is usually built of brick or stone, hollow within, and having an opening to the interior. A wooden altar-slab covered with crosses, etc., lies in a rectangular depression on the surface, and is used in case of need as a portable altar. Chalice and paten, ewer and basin, crewet and chrismatory, are found as in the Western churches. The aster consists of two crossed half-hoops of silver and is placed over the wafer. The flabellum is used, though now rarely made of precious metal. Some examples of silver-cased textus now remain ing are very fine. Every church possesses thuribles—the use of in cense being universal and frequent—and diadems for the marriage service. Church bells are forbidden by the Muslims, except in the desert, and church music consists merely of cymbals and triangles which accompany the chanting.