CORNWALL, the south-westernmost county of England, bounded north and north-west by the Atlantic ocean, east by Devonshire, and south and south-west by the English Channel. Area, 1,356.6 sq. miles. The most southerly extension is Lizard Point, and the most westerly point of the mainland Land's End, but the county also includes the Scilly Isles (q.v.), lying 25 m. W. by S. of Land's End. The form is that of a peninsula 75 m. long and 45 m. broad across the base. It owes its main features to the folding movement of the Armorican system complicated by a series of granite intrusions. The latter form moorland bosses decreasing in height from east to west. Dartmoor in Devon is the largest and highest, Bodmin Moor reaches 1,375 ft. in Brown Willy, Hensbarrow Beacon is under 1,000 ft., Carn Menellis and the St. Just boss are lower; a further granite mass now largely submerged forms the Scilly Isles. The lower-lying regions are mainly of folded slaty rock of Devonian Age, striking largely east to west, with some limestone ; in the extreme north-east there are Carboniferous grits and shales. From Tintagel Head northwards to Hartland Point in Devon the distorted strata form steep cliffs because of the rapid maritime erosion that goes on. Serpentines, gabbros and metamorphic schists in the Lizard district and in the area between Bolt head and Start Point were formerly said to be of Archaean Age but the latest opinion is that these rocks were altered to their present composition in post-lower-Devonian times, how much later is not known. The veins of ore are chiefly in the slaty rock near the granite masses which themselves give Kaolin by decomposition of felspar. A Tertiary, supposedly Pliocene, uplift and tilt apparently gave especially the south flowing streams an additional impetus and led to the cutting of deep valleys in what the uplift had converted from a peneplane into a plateau or a succession of plateaus formed by an uplift with warping. Post-pleistocene sinking has given rise to the sunken estuaries of south Cornwall and the drainage lines are chiefly those between the granite bosses, the Tamar which forms most of the boundary between Devon and Cornwall draining between Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor into its great southern estuary. The Camel drains northward to Padstow Bay and the Fowey southward into a long estuary between Bodmin Moor and Hensbarrow Beacon. The Fal estuary is placed between the Hensbarrow and the Carn Menellis bosses and there is a low line across from Mount's Bay to St. Ives Bay between Carn Menellis and the St. Just boss. The sinking movement, probably partly at least since the appearance of man in the west, is held to have given rise to many legends of west Britain.
The climate is soft but sunny though sea-mists are common especially in spring and autumn. The average temperature for January is, 43° at Bude and at Falmouth. The vegetation in shelter is correspondingly luxuriant and southern in type but in places exposed to the sea winds the trees do not grow large. Fruit does not ripen very well through lack of dry heat but fuchsias, myrtles, hydrangeas and camellias flourish. Rainfall is heavy and, though only 32.8 inches per annum at Bude, it reaches inches at Falmouth and 50.6 inches at Bodmin.
The wind-swept moorlands and cliffs gave opportunities for early settlement and when the use of metal was beginning to spread, or just prior to this, west Cornwall became important, as its wealth of megalithic monuments shows. They include dolmens such as those of Lanyon, Mulfra, Chun and Zennor. Monoliths have a wider distribution, those in the parish of St. Buryan being well known. The principal stone circles are the Hurlers, near Liskeard; the Boskednan, Boscawen-un, and Tregeseal circles and that called Dawns-un at Boleigh. All these except the Hurlers are in the Land's End district. There are also alinements on the moors near Rough Tor and Brown Willy. It has been thought that this culture is part of an elaborate movement from the Mediterranean, which brought Cornwall and the South-west defi nitely into touch with Brittany, and this connection was perpetu ated in different ways almost until modern times. A few Early Bronze implements have been found but the Beaker movement apparently did not reach Cornwall. The coastal promontories and river estuaries are protected by clusters of earthworks of presumed Iron Age date, but mining operations have destroyed so many that it is impossible to argue from their type and distribution. Roman influence was naturally weak in the far west and there are few traces west of Exeter. Roman occupation and Saxon coloniza tion of the lands farther east caused westward pressure and it is to these influences that must be assigned the emigration of Bry thonic speaking people into south-west England and from south west England to Brittany. Remains of Celtic Christianity in Corn wall include crosses of various dates from the 6th century onward, inscribed sepulchral stones, generally of the 7th and 8th cen turies, and oratories. These have their parallels in Ireland, which is natural as the prehistoric contacts with Ireland and Wales and Brittany were maintained in early Christian times. In all these regions dedications to local saints are a great feature. The oratory buildings are very small and rude, always placed near a spring. The best example is St. Piran's near Perranzabuloe, which long lay buried in sand dunes. St. Piran was one of the mission aries sent from Ireland by St. Patrick in the 5th century, and became the patron saint of the tin-miners.
Cornwall was the last portion of British territory in the south to submit to the Saxon invader. In 815 Egbert directed his efforts towards the subjugation of the West-Welsh of Cornwall, and after eight years' fighting compelled the whole of Dyvnaint to acknowledge his supremacy. Assisted by the Danes the Cornish revolted but were again defeated, probably in 836, at the battle of Hengestesdun, Hingston Down in Stoke-Climsland. Ninety years later Aethelstan banished the West-Welsh from Exeter and made the Tamar the boundary of their territory. The thorough ness of the conquest is evident from the fact that in the days of the Confessor nearly the whole of the land in Cornwall was held by men bearing English names. As the result of the Norman con quest less than one-twelfth of the land (exclusive of that held by the Church) remained in English hands. Six-sevenths of the manors were assigned to Robert of Mortain, and became the foundation of the earldom held by the eldest son or near relative of the king. For the first four centuries after the Norman con quest the part played by Cornwall in England's political history was comparatively unimportant. In the 15th century Cornwall strongly supported the Lancastrian cause, and its remoteness from the capital made it a potential field for revolt. This is seen in the support given to the Thomas Flamank rebellion in 1497, to Perkin Warbeck in the same year, and to the Humphry Arundell rebellion, over the religious question, in 1549. During the Civil Wars Corn wall strongly resisted the new ideas of the English. The king's Cornish troops defeated General Ruthen on Bradoc Down, while General Chudleigh, another parliamentary general, was repulsed near Launceston, and the earl of Stamford at Stratton. The whole county was thereby secured to the king. The subsequent fighting tended in favour of the Royalists, but dissensions in the camp hastened their overthrow. The i8th century was remark able for the fervour shown by Cornishmen in the Methodist move ment. The dwellers of this remote moorland had been neglected by the Anglican Church, while the early Dissenters paid attention to the larger towns. It was left to the Wesleys to arouse the miners of the great moorland tracts of Cornwall.
The old Cornish language survives in a few words still in use in the fishing and mining communities, as well as in the names of persons and places, but the last persons who spoke it died towards the end of the i8th century. It belonged to the Cymric or Brythonic division of Celtic, in which Welsh and Breton are also included. Three miracle plays written in Cornish are impor tant relics of the language.
Agriculture.—Oats and mixed corn form the main grain-crops. Turnips, swedes, mangolds and cabbage make up the bulk of the root crops. The number of cattle (chiefly of the Devonshire breed) is large, and many sheep are kept. Market-gardening is largely carried on in the neighbourhood of Penzance, where the climate is specially suitable for the growth of early potatoes, broccoli and asparagus, early fruit and flowers for the markets of the great cities, the Scilly Isles sharing in the industry, especially as regards flowers. In the valleys the soil is frequently rich and deep ; there are good arable and pasture farms, and the natural oak-wood has been preserved and increased by plantation.
Mining.—The wealth of Cornwall, however, lies not so much in the soil, as underground and in the surrounding seas. Hence the favourite Cornish toast, "fish, tin and copper." The tin of Cornwall has been known and worked from the Bronze Age. By ancient charters the "tinners" were exempt from all jurisdiction (save in cases affecting land, life and limb) other than that of the Stannary Courts, and peculiar laws were enacted in the Stannary parliaments (see STANNARIES). A tax on the tin, after smelting, was paid to the earls and dukes of Cornwall. The smelted blocks had to be coined, that is, stamped with the duchy seal, before they could be sold. In 1838 the dues on coinage were abolished, and a compensation awarded to the duchy instead of them. Cornish miners have often directed successful developments of mining in many parts of the world, and much emigration took place in the middle of the last century. The industry has suffered from periods of depression, as before the accession of Queen Elizabeth, who introduced miners from Germany to resuscitate it ; and in modern times the shallow workings, from which tin could be easily "streamed," have become practically exhausted. The deeper work ings of recent years are more costly and foreign competition is greater. There was a slight revival during the World War period but in post-war years mining almost ceased. A rise in the price of tin 1926-28 caused renewed activity especially in the Redruth Camborne district. The more important mines are at Carn Brea, Illogan and near St. Just in the extreme west, with others near Callington in the south-east. The largest tin-mine is that of Dolcoath near Camborne. Copper is extracted at St. Just and at Carn Brea. No mine seems to have been worked exclusively for copper before 177o. In 1 718 John Coster gave a great impulse by draining the deeper mines, and introduced an improved method of dressing ore. In 1851 the mines of Devon and Corn wall were estimated to furnish one-third of the copper raised in Europe. Iron (brown haematite) has been worked near Lost withiel and elsewhere. The St. Austell district produces china clay and since its extended use for paper filling, and the textile trade, it has become a very important commodity, Cornwall exporting tons in 1926. Much is exported to the United States. Granite is largely quarried in various districts, as at Luxulian (between St. Austell and Lostwithiel), and in the neighbourhood of Penryn. Fine slate is quarried and largely exported, as from the Delabole quarries near Tintagel. These slates were in great repute in the i6th century and earlier. Serpentine is quarried in the Lizard district. Pitchblende also occurs, and is mined for the extraction of radium.