CORONATION, a solemnity whereby sovereigns are in augurated in office. In pre-Christian times in Europe the king or ruler, upon his election, was raised on a shield, and, standing upon it, was borne on the shoulders of certain of the chief men of the tribe, or nation, round the assembled people. This was called the gyratio, and it was usually performed three times. At its con clusion a spear was placed in the king's hand, and the diadem, a richly wrought band of silk or linen, which must not be confused with the crown (see CROWN AND CORONET), was bound around his forehead. When Europe became Christian, a religious service of benediction was added to the older form, which, however, was not abandoned. Derived from the Teutons, the Franks continued the gyratio, and Clovis, Sigebert, Pippin and others were thus elevated to the royal estate. From a combination of the old custom with the religious service the later ceremonies were de veloped. In the procession of the English king from the Tower to Westminster (first abandoned at the coronation of James II.), in the subsequent elevation of the king into what was known as the marble chair in Westminster Hall, and in the showing of the king of France to the people, as also in the universal practice of delivering a sceptre to the new ruler, traces, it is thought, may be detected of the original function.
The added religious service was naturally derived from the Bible, where mention is frequently made, in the Old Testament, of the anointing and crowning of kings. The anointing of the king soon came to be regarded as the most important, if not essential, feature of the service. By virtue of the unction which he re ceived, the sovereign was regarded, in the middle ages, as a mixta persona, in part a priest and in part a layman. It was a strange theory, and Lyndwode, the great English canonist, is cautious as to it, and was content to say that it was the opinion of some people. It gained wide acceptance, and the anointed sovereign was generally regarded as, in some degree, possessed of the priestly character. By virtue of the unction he had received, the emperor was made a canon of St. John Lateran and of St. Peter at Rome, and also of the collegiate church of Aachen, while the king of France was premier chanoine of the primatial church of Lyons, and held canonries at Embrun, Le Mans, Montpellier, St. Pol-de-Leon, Lodeve, and other cathedral churches in France. There are, moreover, trustworthy records that, on more than one occasion, a king of France, habited in a surplice and choir robes, took part with the clergy in the services of some of those church es. Martene quotes an order, which directs that at the imperial coronation at Rome, the pope ought to sing the mass, the emperor read the gospel, and the king of Sicily, or, if present, the king of France, the epistle. Nothing like this was known in England, and a theory, which has prevailed of late, that the English sovereign is, in a personal sense, canon of St. David's, is based on a mis conception. The canonry in question was attached to St. Mary's College at St. David's before the Reformation, and, at the dis solution of the college, became crown property; but the king of England is not, and never was personally, a canon of St. David's, nor did he ever perform any quasi-clerical function.
At first a single anointing on the head was the practice, but afterwards other parts of the body, as the breast, arms, shoulders and hands received the unction. From a very early period in the West three kinds of oil have been blessed each year on Maundy Thursday, the oil of the catechumens, the oil of the sick, and the chrism. The last, of olive oil and balsam, is only used for the most sacred purposes, and the oil of the catechumens was that used for the unction of kings. In France, however, a legend gained credence that the Holy Dove had descended from heaven, bearing a vessel (afterwards called the Sainte Ampoule), contain ing holy oil, and had placed it on the altar for the coronation of Clovis. A drop of oil from the Sainte Ampoule mixed with chrism was afterwards used for anointing the kings of France. Similarly the chrism was introduced into English coronations, for the first time probably at the coronation of Edward II. To rival the French story another miracle was related that the Virgin Mary had appeared to Thomas Becket, and had given him a vessel with holy oil, which at some future period was to be used for the sacring of the English king. A full account of this miracle, and the subsequent finding of the vessel, is contained in a letter writ ten in 13 r8 by Pope John XXII. to Edward II. The chrism was used in addition to the holy oil. The king was first anointed with the oil, and then signed on the head with the chrism. In ail other countries the oil of the catechumens was alone used. In conse quence of the use of chrism the kings of England and France were thought to be able to cure scrofula by the imposition of their hands, and hence arose the practice in those countries of touching for the king's evil, as it was called. In England the chrism dis appeared at the Reformation, but touching for the evil was con tinued till the accession of the house of Hanover in '714.
The oldest existing ritual for the coronation of a king is con tained in what is known as the Pontifical of Egbert, who was arch bishop of York in the middle of the 8th century. The coronation service in it is entitled Missa pro rege in die benedictionis ejus, and the coronation ceremony is interpolated in the middle of the mass. After the Gospel the officiant recites some prayers of benediction and then pours oil from a horn on the king's head, while the anthem "Zadok the priest," etc., is sung. After this the assembled bishops and nobles place a sceptre in the king's hands, while a form of intercessory benediction is recited. Then the staff (baculus) is delivered to him, and finally a helmet (galea) is set upon his head, the whole assembly repeating thrice "May King N. live for ever. Amen. Amen. Amen." The enthronement. follows, with the kisses of homage and of fealty, and the mass, with special prayers, is concluded.
Another service of Anglo-Saxon date bearing, but with no good reason, the name of Aethelred II., has also been preserved, and is of importance as it spread from England to the Continent, and was used for the coronations of the kings of France. It differs from the Egbert form as the coronation precedes the mass, while the use of a ring, and the definite allusion to a crowr_ (corona not galea) occur in it. Joined to it is the form for the coronation of a queen consort. It may have been used for the crowning of Harold and of William the Conqueror.
A third English coronation form, of the i2th century, bears the name of Henry I., but also without good reason. The ceremonial is more fully developed, and the king is anointed on the head, breast, shoulders, and elbows. The royal mantle appears for the first time, as does the sceptre. The queen consort is to be crowned secundum ordinem Romanum, and the whole function precedes the mass.
The fourth and most important of all English coronation services is that of the Liber Regalis, a manuscript still in the keeping of the dean of Westminster. It was introduced in 1307, and continued in use till the Reformation, and, in an English translation and with the Communion service substituted for the Latin mass, it was used for the coronation of James I. In it the English coronation ceremonies reached their fullest development. The following is a bare outline of its main features:— The ceremonies began the day before the coronation, the king being conducted in a procession from the Tower of London to Westminster. There he reposed for the night, and was instructed by the abbot as to the solemn obligations of the kingly office. Early next morning he went to - Westminster Hall, and there, among other ceremonies, as rex regnaturus was elevated into a richly adorned seat on the king's bench, called the Marble Chair. Then a procession with the regalia was marshalled and led into the abbey church, the king wearing a cap of estate on his head, and supported by the bishops of Bath and Durham. A platform with thrones, etc., having been previously prepared under the crossing, the king ascended it, and, all being in order, the arch bishop of Canterbury called for the Recognition, after which the king, approaching the high altar, offered a pall to cover it, and a pound of gold. Then a sermon appropriate to the occasion was preached by one of the bishops, the oath was administered by the archbishop, and the V eni Creator and a litan'y were sung. Then the king was anointed with oil on his hands, breast, between the shoulders, on the shoulders, on the elbows, and on the head; finally he was anointed with the chrism on his head. Thus blessed and anointed, the king was vested, first with a silk dalmatic, called the colobium sindonis, then a long tunic, reaching to the ankles and woven with great golden images before and behind, was put upon him. He then received the buskins, the sandals, and spurs, then the sword and its girdle; after this the stole, and finally the royal mantle, four-square in shape and woven throughout with golden eagles. Thus vested, the crown of St. Edward was set on his head, the ring placed on his wedding finger, the gloves drawn over his hands, and the golden sceptre, in form of an orb and cross, delivered to him. Lastly, the golden rod with the dove at the top was placed in the king's left hand. Thus consecrated, vested and crowned the king kissed the bishops who, assisted by the nobles, enthroned him, while the Te Deum was sung. When a queen consort was also crowned, that ceremony immediately fol lowed, and the mass with special collect, epistle, gospel, and pref ace was said, and during it both king and queen received the sac rament in one kind. At the conclusion the king retired to a con venient place, surrounded with curtains, where the great cham berlain took off certain of the robes, and substituted others for them, and the archbishop, still wearing his mass vestments, set other crowns on the heads of the king and queen, and with these they left the church.
This service, in English, was used at the coronation of James I., Elizabeth having been crowned with the Latin service. Little change was made till 1685, when it was considerably altered for the coronation of James II. The Communion was necessarily omitted in the case of a Roman Catholic, but other changes were introduced quite needlessly by Archbishop Sancroft, and four years later the old order was still more seriously changed, with the result that the revisions of 1685 and 1689 have grievously muti lated the service by confusing the order of its different sections, while the meaning of the prayers has been completely changed for no apparent reason. Alterations since then have been verbal rather than essential, but at each subsequent coronation some feature has disappeared, the proper preface having been aban doned at the coronation of Edward VII.
In connection with the English coronation a number of claims to do certain services have sprung up, and before each coronation a court of claims is constituted, which investigates and adjudi cates on the claims that are made. The most striking of all these services is that of the challenge made by the king's champion, a service in grand serjeantry attached to the manor of Scrivelsby for many centuries. Immediately following the service in the church a banquet was held in Westminster Hall, during the first course of which the champion entered the hall on horseback, armed cap-a-pie, with red, white, and blue feathers in his helmet. He was supported by the high constable on his right, and the earl marshal on his left, both of whom were also mounted. On his appearance in the hall a herald in front of him read the challenge, the words of which have not materially varied at any period, as follows : "If any person, of what degree soever, high or low, shall deny or gainsay our sovereign lord . . . , king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, defender of the faith, (ion and) next heir unto our sovereign lord the last king deceased, to be the right heir to the imperial crown of this realm of Great Britain and Ireland, or that he ought not to enjoy the same; here is his champion, who saith that he lieth, and is a false traitor, being ready in person to combat with him ; and in this quarrel will adventure his life against him, on what day soever he shall be appointed." The champion then threw down the gauntlet. The challenge was again made in the centre of the hall, and a third time before the high table, at which the king was seated. The king then drank to the champion out of a silver-gilt cup, with a cover, which he handed to him as his fee. The banquet was last held, and the challenge made, at the coronation of George IV. in 182r. The champion's claim was admitted in 1 go 2, but as there was no banquet the duty of bearing the standard of England was assigned to him. There is no record of the challenge ever having been accepted.
The coronation form in France bore much resemblance, in its general features, to the English coronation, and was, it is believed, originally based on the English form. The unction was given, first on the top of the head in the form of a cross, on the breast, be tween the shoulders, and at the bending and joints of both arms. Then, standing up, the king was vested in the dalmatic, tunic, and royal robe, all of purple velvet sprinkled with fleurs-de-lys of gold, and representing, it was said, the three orders of subdeacon, deacon, and priest. Then, kneeling again, he was anointed in the palms of the hands, after which the gloves, ring, and sceptre were delivered. Then the peers were summoned by name to come near and assist, and the archbishop of Reims, taking the crown of Charlemagne from the altar, set it on the king's head. After which the enthronement and showing of the king to the people took place. All the unctions were made with the chrism, mixed with a drop of oil from the Sainte Ampoule. After the enthrone ment mass was said, and at its conclusion the king communicated 'in both kinds. The third day after the coronation the king touched for the evil.
On the "11 Frimaire, an 13," Napoleon and Josephine were jointly crowned at Paris by the pope. Napoleon entered Notre Dame wearing a crown, and before him were carried the imperial ornaments, to wit : "la couronne de l'empereur, l'epee, la main de justice, le sceptre, le manteau de l'empereur, son anneau, son collier, le globe imperial, la couronne de l'imperatrice, son man teau, son anneau." Each of these was blessed, and delivered with a benediction to the emperor and empress, kneeling side by side, to receive them, both having previously received the unction on the head and on each hand. Napoleon placed the crown on his head himself. Mass with special prayers followed.
In Spain the coronation ceremony never assumed the fullness or magnificence that might have been expected. It was usually performed at Toledo, or in the church of St. Jerome at Madrid, the king being anointed by the archbishop of Toledo. The royal ornaments were the sword, sceptre, crown of gold, and the apple of gold, which the king himself assumed after the unction. In re cent years the unction and coronation have been disused.
In Sweden the king was anointed and crowned at Uppsala by the archbishop. The ceremony is now performed in the Storkyrka, at Stockholm, where the archbishop of Uppsala anoints the king on the breast, temples, forehead, and palms of both hands. The crown is placed on the king's head by the archbishop and the min ister of justice jointly, whereupon the State marshal proclaims: "Now is crowned king of the Swedes, Goths and Wends, he and no other." When there is a queen consort she is then anointed, crowned, and proclaimed in the same manner.
In Norway, according to the law of 1814, the coronation is performed in the cathedral at Trondhjem, when the Lutheran superintendent, or bishop, anoints the king. The crown is placed on the king's head jointly by the bishop and the prime minister.
In Russia the coronation, celebrated at Moscow, was full of religious significance. The tsar was anointed by the metropolitan, but placed the crown on his head himself. He received the sacra ment among the clergy, the priestly theory of his office being rec ognized. The coronation ceremony was also performed with much significant ritual in Austria and Hungary. In other countries, as Prussia, it was retained in a modified form; but in the remaining States such as Denmark, Belgium, Italy, etc., it has been aban doned, or never introduced.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.-F. Sandford, Description of the Coronation of Bibliography.-F. Sandford, Description of the Coronation of James II. and Queen Mary (1687) ; N. Menin, The Form, Order, and Ceremonies of Coronations, trans. from the French (1727) ; Anon., A Complete Account of the Ceremonies observed in the Coronations of the Kings and Queens of England (1727) ; E. Martene, De Antiquis Ecclesiae Riticus, t. iv. lib. v. (1736-38) ; Roxburgh Club, Liber Regalis (187o) ; L. G. Wickham Legg, English Coronation Records (IgoI). (T. M. F.)