Daniel Webster Highway

DANIEL WEBSTER HIGHWAY, American oughfare extending from the sachusetts-New Hampshire State boundary line to the Connecticut river at Canaan, Vermont. This highway was established by the New Hampshire legislature in 1921 to commemorate the great statesman whose name it bears; at Franklin it passes near his birthplace. It traverses the White Mountains and the heart of the State, and is hard surfaced or paved throughout its length of zoo miles. Lake Winnepesaukee, Mt. Washington, Old Man of the Mountains, the Indian Head and Franconia Notch are among the scenic attractions along its route. DANISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The territory of Old Danish included the present Denmark, the southern Swedish provinces Halland, Skane and Blekinge, the whole of Schleswig, and for a short period also a great part of Britain, and parts of Normandy. The oldest monuments of the language are runic inscriptions, altogether about 225 in number. The oldest of them go as far back as to the beginning of the 9th century. No Danish literature arose before the 13th century. The oldest manuscript dates from the end of that century, written in runes and containing the law of Skane. From about the year 1300 we possess a manuscript written in Latin characters and containing the so-called Valdemar's and Erik's laws of Zealand, the Flensborg manuscript of the law of Jutland, and a manu script of the municipal laws of Flensborg. These three manu scripts represent three different dialects—that, namely, of Skane, Halland and Blekinge, that of Zealand and the other islands, and that of Jutland and Schleswig. There existed no uniform literary language in the Old Danish period.

The form of the language hardly differs at all during the period between A.D. 800 and 1200 from Old Swedish. In the oldest literature the differences are not important, and are generally attributable to the fact that Danish underwent a little earlier the same changes that afterwards took place in Swedish. Internally, they show considerable differences ; the law of Skane most nearly corresponds with the Swedish laws, those of Zealand keep the middle place, while the law of Jutland exhibits the most distinc tive individuality. The vocabulary, which in earlier times only borrowed a few, and those mostly ecclesiastical, words, became chiefly owing to the predominant influence of the Hanse towns— inundated by German words.

The earliest traces of literary production in Denmark may be found as far back as the Germanic migration. The mythical events of that period provided inspiration for a Danish epic, which has been lost. Its outline and its ideas can be found in the free version in Latin made by Saxo about 1200 (see Axel Olrik, Dan mark's Heltedigtning). During the first centuries after the arrival of Christianity in the country, the Danish mind was almost ex clusively engaged in a slow process of assimilation. This was com pleted by the year when Denmark came into touch with the Latin civilization common to Europe, partly through translations and partly through adaptations. To this time belong many legends (the earliest about Knud the saint, by the English monk Aelnoth) ; the Hexaemeron, a poem about the creation, by Archbishop An dreas Suneson ; annals of monasteries and chronicles, the most im portant being the Compendiosa Historia Regum Daniae by Sven Aggesen, and the Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus. In the Danish language we find, during the 13th century, collections of legal customs which before that time only existed in the form of oral tradition ; e.g., the "Scanian Law" and the "Seeland Law." The "Jutland Law" was somewhat under the influence of Roman and canonical law. The medical treatises of Henrik Harpestreng were written at the same time. From the 15th century dates a version of Lucidarius, the collection of old proverbs by Peter Laale, and a history of Denmark in verse (RimkrOniken). This was the first book in Danish to be printed • The most sig nificant section of mediaeval Danish literature consists of folk songs. In 1S91 Anders Sorensen Vedel published loo songs. Svend Grundtvig began a complete and scholarly edition in 1883. It was continued after his death by Axel Olrik.

Effect of the Reformation.

The century was influenced by Humanism, but the struggle of the Reformation engaged the energies of all that was most significant in the nation. The human ist, Poul Helgesen, who had been trained by Erasmus, was a pas sionate Catholic polemist, while Hans Tausen (d. 1561 as bishop of Ribe) was a Protestant agitator. A useful mediator between the old and the new tendencies was Christian Pedersen (d. In 1534 he adapted the French poems about Holger Danske—a book which remained popular for three centuries. Finally he was the principal author of the first complete Danish translation of the Bible (155o). Peder Palladius (d. as bishop of Seeland in 156o) transports us into the very midst of the fight for the Lutherani zation of the national life in his Visitatsbog, consisting of notes made for his visits of inspection as a bishop.

The Danish hymn originated during this period. The earlier hymnbooks have been lost, but their contents can be found in the first larger collection published by Hans Thomisen in 1569. A little later Hans Christensen Sthen wrote hymns in the style and in the tender tone of f olk-songs.

The main part of the non-religious literature of the i 6th century has been lost. The most important is the translation from the low German of Reynard the Fox by Herman Weigere (1555). The earliest trace of dramatic poetry in Denmark can also be found in that century—miracle- and morality-plays and farces in naive style, enacted by the pupils of the schools. The oldest-known work is a miracle-play, Ludus de Sancto Canuto (c. 153o). The most talented dramatic author of the period was Hieronymus Justesen Ranch (d. 1607), rector in Viborg.

Apart from belles-lettres we have to mention the Skiby-chron icle by Poul Helgesen, the excellent translation of Saxo in by Anders Sorensen Vedel, the translation of Snorre's Heims kringla by the Norwegian, Peder Clauson Friis, as well as the Dan marks Riges Kronike (Chronicle of the Danish State) by the chancellor Arild Huitfeld. Fantastical historiography is repre sented by Claus Lyschander, who carries the origin of the Danish royal house back to Adam.

Coming of the Renaissance.

During the Thirty Years' War Denmark was drawn into the European literary renaissance. The first representative of the new tendency was Anders Arrebo (1587-1637) for some time bishop in Trondhjem. He translated the Psalms into verse, and wrote an adaptation of the Hexaemeron by Du Bartas. Anders Bording (d. 1677) wrote lively topical poems and poems in the sentimental and gallant pastoral manner. He also wrote Den Danske Mercurius, a court-journal written in Alexandrine verse (1666) ,which was the first Danish weekly news paper. By far the greatest poet is the writer of hymns, Thomas Kingo (1634-1703), the son of an emigrated Scottish weaver. After some smaller collections of hymns (including admirable morning- and evening-hymns) he published at the invitation of the king his sketch of a new hymn-book. A large part of this work was incorporated in the authorized hymn-book, the so-called hymn-book of Kingo of The prose of this period contained a large amount of creative work. Ole Worm (1588-1654) is the originator of research into national antiquities, with the Monumenta Danica (1643), which described and interpreted all runic inscriptions known in his time. The Teutonic renaissance, which a century later was to come over from England as a reaction against the one-sided worship of French classicism, was already making itself felt in works such as the edition and translation of some of the older songs of the Edda by Peder Resen (1665), and in the essay De Calais contemptae Mortis a Danis (1689) by Thomas Bartholin the Younger. For the first time the living language was the object of serious study, in Latin by Bishop Erik Pontoppidan (1668) and in Danish in the Danske Sprogkunst, and in the Considerations about the Cymbric Language by the priest Peder Syv (1631-1702). At the end of the century two scholarly ladies appear, Brigitte Thott, who trans lated Seneca in 1658, and the daughter of Christian IV., Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, who in the unique human document Jammer smindet, first discovered and published in 1869, has described in a moving manner the history of her 20 years' imprisonment. Famous anatomists were Thomas Bartholin (d. 168o), Nicolaus Steno (d. 1686), who also founded geognosy, and Ole Romer (d. 171o), who discovered the velocity of light.

The 18th Century.

In the first half of the 18th century Ludvig Holberg (q.v., , puts all other names in the shade. He is called the father of Danish literature and contributed to nearly every branch of it. He wrote satires, 34 comedies, novels and epigrams. Unprejudiced and humorous, a raisonneur in the English and particularly in the French manner, he poured forth popular philosophical letters and moral considerations, and for the first time in Denmark, catered for the general cultured public.

Frederik Eilschow, popular philosopher, who died at the age of 25 in 175o, was a pupil of Holberg, as was Jens Schelderup Sneedorff (d. 1764), editor of a review in the manner of Addison, called The Patriotic Spectator. Historians of the period include Hans Gram (1685-1748), a critical student of sources and a schol arly annotator, founder of the "Videnskabernes Selskab" (Scien tific Association, 1742), and Jakob Langebek (1710-78) who was first and foremost an editor. He began the great edition of Scrip tores Rerum Danicarum. Erik Pontoppidan the Younger (q.v., d. 1764) wrote Danische Kirchengeschichte and the topographical work Danske Atlas. Apart from Holberg, poetry in the first half of the i8th century has little importance.

After Holberg's death English and French influences became in creasingly marked. Pope's didactic poetry and the nature poems of Thomson found an imitator in Christian Braunman Tullin (1729-65). An association for improving the people's taste had been founded in accordance with the rules established by French aesthetics. These rules were strictly applied in the first original Danish tragedy Zarine (1772) by the Norwegian, Nordahl Brun. After 177o, other tendencies appeared. It was through Klopstock, who spent a great part of his life in Denmark, that the German Renaissance, which had its starting point in Young, Macpherson and Percy, was imported into Denmark. Its most talented repre sentative is Johannes Ewald (q.v., 1743-81), perhaps the most important lyrical poet in the pathetic manner of the i8th century. Ewald began as an adherent of French classicism, but was after wards influenced by Shakespeare and Ossian. He wrote the first national tragedies, choosing his subjects from Saxo and the Edda (Rolf Krage and Balder's Death). In the musical play The Fishermen we find expressed for the first time the love of the sea and admiration for the common seaman. In his autobiography Levned og Meninger his delicate mind found its best medium of expression. Here we find humour and sensitiveness like Sterne's and the self-analysis of Rousseau.

The Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (1742-85), was a lover of clearness, wit and elegance. He caricatured insincere pathos and servile imitation in his tragic parody Kaerlighed uden StrOmper (Love without Stockings, 1772). He was the wittiest of the clever literary people who gathered in the "Norske Selskab" (Norwegian Association). Jens Baggesen (q.v., 1764-1826) was a man of restless nature but charming mind and real facility. His best work was done in his rhymed epistles and in Labyrinten, a description of travel in the manner of Sterne (1792).

The poets of the last decade of the i8th century are not of great importance, but, in a tentative way, they tried new tunes. Thomas Thaarup described the peasants in dramatic idylls with a patriotic tendency, e.g., HOstgildet (Harvest Festival, 1791). Ole SamsOe (d. 1796) chose a subject from the national past for his tragedy Dyveke (the mistress of Christian II.). O. C. Olafsen (1764-1827) wrote the best comedy since Holberg, Gulddaasen. Political and social satire predominate in the work of Peter An dreas Heiberg (1758-1841), who wrote plays (De Vonner og de Vanner), articles for periodicals and club-songs. Having been punished several times for his audacious criticism, he was banished in 1800 and settled in Paris. The same fate befell Malte Conrad Bruun (1775-1826) because of the Aristokraternes Katekismus.

The growing interest taken in political and public affairs mani fested itself in the formation of clubs Where social life 3,vas in spired by the punch-bowl and by songs. The most fertile and amiable song-writer of the period was Knud Lyhne Rabbek (I760-183o). He also contributed to the periodicals Minerva and The Danish Spectator. As an editor and a historian of literature he collaborated with the scholarly philologist Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) and with Werner Abrahamson (1744-1812), aesthete and critic. During this period Danish prose acquired increasing flexibility, clearness and irony. The doctor Johan Clemens Tode (d. 18°6) wrote witty essays, Ove Malling aimed at arousing the patriotic sense of the Danes with anecdotes from the national history, Store og gode Handlinger (Great and Good Deeds, i777), and Peter Frederik Suhm (1728-98) wrote a book about Odin and a history of Denmark, rich in material. Niels Treschow (1751-1833) was a philosopher with a style of Gallic delicacy.

The Golden Age.

The period between the battle of the roadstead of Copenhagen ( I8oi ) and the battle of Diippel (1864) was the golden age of Danish poetry. The Danish romantic movement shows an unusually harmonious blend of nationalism, of Christianity and of humanity. The first representative of the movement was Adolph Wilhelm Schack von Staffeldt (1769– '826), who was born in Germany and whose lyricism is profound and thoughtful, though rather heavy and lacking in polish. In the appreciation of the public he was entirely put in the shade by Adam Oehlenschlaeger (1779-185o), the most richly en dowed poetical genius of Denmark. It was the Norwegian Henrik Steffens, whose conversations and lectures (18o2) introduced Oehlenschlaeger to the world of romantic thought. The following years were the creative period, when Oehlenschlaeger wrote his romances, tragedies, poetic stories of adventure and sagas, works which are still the culminating point of Danish poetry. The power and beauty of his style and its picturesqueness influenced the poetry of the whole century that followed ; the world of the Northern gods and heroes became as visible and tangible in Oehlenschlaeger's poetry, as that of the Greek Olympus in Homer. In Aladdin and in the figures of his tragedies the nation found an idealized picture Jf its own character, open, naive, innocent, pious and true. Nicolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v., 1783– '872) was a clergyman, poet and historian. He developed through hard inner conflicts into a mighty advocate of religious and national awakening which, particularly through the Grundt vigian folk high schools, has been of enormous importance to the Danish people. He wrote historical and popular poems and a great number of hymns, some of which by their mixture of prophetic in spiration, simplicity and depth rank among the foremost in the world's literature. He was also a learned mythological and his torical writer and gave, during three visits to England about 183o, an impetus to Anglo-Saxon studies. The importance of Bernhard Severin Ingemann (q.v., 1789-1862) also lay in his awakening and strengthening the national self-confidence. This he effected by his historical novels of the middle ages, written somewhat in the manner of Scott, and by his cycle of romances Holger Danske. Carsten Hauch (q.v., 179o-1872) was a pupil of Oehlenschlaeger and was romantic in the manner of Tieck and Novalis. His pro found and noble personality expressed itself in historical dramas and novels, and especially in his lyrical poems.

The New Realism.

It is in the '20S of the i9th century that the first traces of an interest in reality can be detected in the choice of poetical subjects. Poul Martin M011er (1794-1838), a strong and vital personality, portrayed, particularly in his novel En dansk Students Eventyr (The Adventures of a Danish Student, 1824), the types of his own time. Jute Steen Steensen Blicher (1782-1848) also wrote of contemporary life. His starting point was the i8th century. He began in 1807 with a prose translation of Ossian. Later he translated Pope's Abelard and The Rape of the Lock, Goldsmith's Vicar of 1Vakefield and several of the Percy folk-songs. Sterne also strongly influenced him. He was the first to describe in his poems Jutland, its heaths and its inhabitants. After 1824 he also did this in his short stories. Particularly original is E. Bindstouw, a collection of poems and stories written in Jutish dialect. Blicher was a clergy man and, completely in the tradition of the i8th century, he aimed at the enlightenment and practical reform of his flock. The divorced wife of P. A. Heiberg, Thomasine Gyllembourg-Ehrens yard (q.v., 1773-1856), was much admired in her own time on account of her short stories, Hverdags-historier (Stories of Every day Existence). She described the troubles of the heart, drawing upon her own experience, with an unprejudiced and delicate human understanding. Her nephew Carl Bernhard (pseudonym, Andreas Saint-Aubain) revealed similar qualities in his novels, while Carl Baggers's (d. 1846) short story (The Life of My Brother), which is full of audacious realism and Byronic pride, shocked the few readers it found.

About 183o the other naive romanticism gave way to a poetical realism, more contemplative and conscious, more artistic than national, more interested in form than in matter. The leader of this movement is Johan Ludvig Heiberg (q.v., 1791-186o). His vaudevilles heralded the newer Danish comedy and his romantic dramas Elverh0j (The Hill of the Fairies) and Syvsoverdag ousted the serious tragedies of Oehlenschlaeger from public favour. Heiberg was the first Danish critic who founded himself upon clearly defined principles. The upper classes allowed him to dictate their taste, until they accepted the doctrines of Georg Brandes. Henrik Hertz (q.v., 1797-187o) was another author of comedies, also a champion of good taste. He was a creature of delicate moods and style, of an artistic mind rather than forceful personality. Christian Winther (q.v., 1796-1876) was the fertile singer of the natural beauties of Seeland and the first great lyrical love poet in Danish. Ludvig Adolf B¢dtcher and Emil Aarestrup (1800--56) are excellent lyrical writers in the small manner.

Hans Andersen.—Unique, and one of the greatest figures was Hans Christian Andersen (q.v., 1805-75). He experimented in several genres without much success until in his Eventyr (Fairy tales), which came out in small instalments from 1835 onwards, he succeeded at last in expressing his real self, his sublime sim plicity, his all-inspiring fancy, his deep sentiment and his quaint humour, which always plays between smiles and tears. The fairy tales were told for a childish audience in a very lively and im pressionistic style, but their ideas are for adults—a mixture of simple idealism and bitterness caused by personal experiences.

In the '4os political liberalism was acquiring an increasingly powerful hold, and a growing sense of actuality and of realism began to undermine the old aesthetic humanism. Heiberg, with his superior sarcasm, condemned what he called the spiritless out look of this time in his satirical work En Sjael e f ter D¢den (A Soul after Death, 1841). Paludan Minler's (18°9-76) point of view however was ethical. His chief work was the epic poem Adam Homo (1841-48), in Byronic stanzas, full of reminiscences of Don Juan. He was one of the masters of Ibsen. So was S¢ren Aaby Kierkegaard (q.v., 1813-55), the most original genius of the '4os. He was a fascinating and at the same time a profound writer, a captivating stylist, a subtle philosophic and religious author. He set forth his conception of life, his views on aesthetic, ethical and religious problems, in Enten-Eller (Either-Or) and Stadier paa Livets Vej (Stages on the Road of Life).

The Jew Meir Aaron Goldschmidt (1819-87) was a figure of transition, a Danish Disraeli. He edited the first satirical weekly, Corsaren (The Corsair). He was the first writer who gave a sym pathetic description of Jews. In his novel En J¢de, a Jew and in his delicate short stories, he displayed a psychological pene tration and depth of mood, which pointed towards a newer poetry. In the '4os a certain liveliness was displayed by the students who carried the banner of aesthetic liberalism and of the pan-Scandi navian idea. Carl Ploug (1813-94)- and Jens Christian Hostrup (1818-92) were their leaders. They wrote songs and students' comedies. Many of the lyrical poets of the middle of the century are delicate in expression even if they are somewhat colourless and vague—Christian Richardt (d. 1892) ; Hans Vilhelm Kaalund (d. 1887) ; Christian Molbech (d. 1888), who also translated Dante; Edvard Lembcke (d. 1897), the translator of Byron and Shakespeare. Eric BySgh (1822-99) was a skilled writer of songs and of vaudevilles in the popular humorous taste.

Prose-writers also followed in the traces of the older genera tion. Herman Frederik Evald (1821-1908) and J. C. C. Brosb¢ll (pseudonym, Carit Etlar, d. 1900) wrote entertaining historical novels in the manner of Blicher and Ingemann. A series of school masters took the same line (Thyregod, Anton Nielsen, Zacharias Nielsen). They widened the circle of readers and in their works probed deeper into popular life than any writer before them. Vilhelm Bergs0e was a capable maker of novels which suited the easily satisfied taste of the upper-classes (Piazza del Popolo, 1866) . The most original was Hans Egede Schack. His novel Phantas terne (The Phantasts, 1857) reveals considerable psychological gifts.

The period which ends about 1870 is rich in important names in the sphere of scholarship. C. J. Thomsen (d. 1865) and J. J. Asmussen Worsaae (1821-85) were the first to place on a firm foundation the study of Nordish archaeology. Niels Matthias Petersen (1791-1862) wrote a pioneer work on the History of Danish Literature, and translated, about 1840, the Seelandish sagas. Christian Molbech (1783-185 7 ), a learned historian and acute critic, published the first good Danish dictionary. Other historians were Engelstoft (1774-185o) and K. F. Allen (1811 71) . In philosophy specially notable personalities were Frederik Christian Sibbern, the Hegelian Rasmus Nielsen (d. 1884) and Hans Br¢chner (d. 1875), the master of Georg Brandes.

The Work of Brandes.

Georg Brandes (q.v., 1842-1927) is undoubtedly the leading Danish representative of the new out look on life which manifested itself during the second half of the 19th century. The brilliance and ingenuity of his manner are shown as much in his lectures about The Principal Tendencies of ipth Century Literature as in his literary essays and critical por traits (Holberg, Kierkegaard, Shakespeare, Goethe, Voltaire). He shattered the national self-confidence and linked the general thought of Denmark with the mind of Europe, especially in the direction of positivism and individualism. His historical and psychological criticism, formed in the school of Taine and Sainte Beuve, indicated the direction in which all subsequent Danish literary history was to move. Finally he pointed the way to the poets of his time in the direction of a truer psychology, a more characteristic style, and in particular towards a more daring and more modern choice of subject matter. His critical attitude towards tradition shocked many people. But most of the talented among the younger generation were delighted and enthusiastic. Until 1900 literature had essentially been a debate between old and new, national and foreign, a choice between tradi tion and freedom. For deeper natures it had meant a debate between the rights of dreams and those of the outer world, be tween the romanticism of the heart and the realism of the intellect. That is how Holger Drachmann (q.v., 1846-1908) the greatest lyrical poet of the period, saw the conflict. He was a great writer of love poems and of vivid poems about the sea and seamen, but his inner life oscillated restlessly between the old and the new.

Jens Peter Jacobsen (q.v., 1847-85), in his stories and novels, went much deeper into the same problems of dream and reality, especially in Niels Lyhne. In Marie Grubbe he introduced the naturalism of Flaubert. In this genre he showed himself capable of closer observation and of deeper psychological interpretation than any of his predecessors.

Sophus Schandorff (1838-1901) painted racy and robust pic tures of peasant and lower middle-class life. (Little Folk, 188o). He caricatured priests and noblemen in the true manner of an agitator. His successor was Gustav Wied (1858-1914) whose pictures of provincial towns were witty distortions of reality, and exposed the hypocrisies of social life (Slaegten, Satyrspil). Erik Skram (1847-1923) became, with Gertrude Colb j¢rnsen 0879), a member of the corporation of iconoclasts. Karl Gjellerup (1857-1919) began with a contentious and anti-theological novel, The Disciple of Teutons, in homage to Georg Brandes. But soon his religious and humanitarian sentiments made him turn his back on naturalism. In drama (Brynhild, Wuthorn) and novels Minna, M¢llen (The Mill), he dealt with eternal problems in the ethical manner of Schiller.

Representatives of the modernist doctrines of Brandes were Edvard Brandes (1847-1931) in his modern tendentious drama, the mocking Peter Nansen (1861-1918) in his stories in the style of Maupassant, and Carl Evald (1856-1908) in his natural-history tales with a Darwinian tendency. In his comedies (e.g., En Skandale), Otto Benzon (1856-1927) battles against the hypocrisy of society, and Gustav Esmann (1860-1904) pokes fun at the older generation, e.g., in Den kaere Familie (The Dear Family). Less of an agitator and more bound by tradition is Einar Christ iansen (1861– ). Sven Lange (1868-193o) was a poet and an individualist unburdened with doctrines, as he showed in his drama Samson and Delila, in his novel Hjertets Gerninger which describes the early '9os, and in The First Conflicts, in which the young Georg Brandes is the principal figure. A typical Copen hagen poet was Karl Larsen (1860-1931), with an acute percep tion and a perfect capacity for expression. He described the types of the big town, from the lowest classes upward : Uden f or Rang klasserne (Outside the Upper Classes). In Den gamle Historie (The Old Story), which is really an autobiography, he has given us a picture of the exaltation of the '7os.

Outside the Brandes movement were the subtle exponent of feminine psychology Wilhelm Tops¢e (184o-8o) and the more modern Herman Bang (185 7-1912) . Bang's outlook on life was decadent and pessimistic. He is fascinating because of the virtuosity of his impressionistic technique. His special subjects are the uneventful existences, those poor nonentities, old or lonely women with a hidden tragedy in their lives that are made up out of nothing at all (Ved V e jen : Away from the Trodden Path; Ludvigsbakke: Ludvigshill; Irene Holm). Henrik Pontoppidan (1857– ) is another important author, although in a somewhat older style. In 1917 he shared the Nobel prize with Karl Gjellerup. In a series of great novels (Det forjaettede Land: The Promised Land; Lykkeper; De DOdes Rige: The Kingdom of the Dead) he has exposed in a forceful and mordantly ironical way the weaknesses of his time.

The '90s in Denmark.—About 189o, a reaction against un inspired naturalism set in, with a deeper impulse towards beauty, a consciousness of duty towards the universe. This applies espe cially to a number of lyrical poets in the '9os. The most important was Johannes Jorgensen (1866– ) . lie was first attracted by Modernism but became converted to Catholicism. In his youth he was a refined stylist ; afterwards in his collections of poems: Fra det Dybe (From the Depths), Blomster og Frugter (Flowers and Fruit) ; and in his prose works : St. Francis of Assisi, The Goethe Book, he revealed the depth of his feeling and his gentle simplicity. His friend Viggo Stuckenberg (1863-1906) was a poet who sang of every-day existence and fidelity. Sophus Claussen (1864-1931) was a capricious, but always an elegant, poet (Dansk Sommer: Danish Summer; Djaevlerier: Devilries; Heroica) and translator, e.g., of Shelley.

Ludvig Holstein (1864– ) was a successor of Christian Win ther, as Valdemar Rordam (1872– ) was the successor of Holger Drachmann. Rordam is also the translator of Kipling. Thor Lange (185 I-1915 ), Ernst v. d. Recke (1848-1933) , and Niels Moller (1859– ) have also to be mentioned, as well as Sophus Michaelis another refined prose writer.

A special group is formed by the Jutland authors who are inspired by love of their land, its natural beauty and its inhabi tants, and its daily life in field, farmyard and home. Jeppe Aakjaer (1866-193o) was a great lyrical poet of popular inspira tion, a pupil of Blicher and of Burns. Johan Skjoldborg (1861 ) is the poet of the Jutland smallholders (En Stridsmand; Kragehuset) . Marie Bregendahl (1867– ) is important for her descriptions of local life which are astonishingly true to life and full of faith in the deeper forces of the world. Jakob Knudsen (1858-1917) stands entirely by himself. He was a writer of strong personality, who broke away from modernism, individualism and intellectualism (Gaering-A f klaring: The Fermentation Subsides, Angst og Mod: Fear and Courage, a book about Luther; Den Gamle Praest: The Old Priest ; Sind). Johannes V. Jensen (1874 ), the most genuine of the Jutland authors, expanded the Jut tish movement into an Anglo-Saxon movement. In The Gothic Renaissance (190o) he attacked the sickness and tiredness of the end of the 19th century. At the same time he is the greatest lan guage reformer since Oehlenschlaeger. His'chief works are: Stories from Himmerland, Myths and Hunts, Exotic Stories, which are based on his travels, and a series of novels; e.g., The Long Jour ney. He also wrote a History of the Northern Races from the Ice-age to the Vikings (translated into English in 1924)• Other modern Danish prose writers of merit are Martin Ander sen Nexo (1869– ), author of the monumental epic of prole tarian life Pelle the Conqueror and Ditte Girl Alive; Harald Kidde (1878-1918) who lacks Nexo's social interests but deals in a subtle manner with complex psychological difficulties (Aage and Elsa; The Hero) ; Thorkild Gravlund (1879– ) who spe cializes in Danish national psychology; Knud Hjorto (1869-1931) who painted pictures of provincial town-life. Johannes Buchholtz (1882– ) describes provincial life in a baroque and fanciful manner (Egholm's Gud; The Miracles of Clara v. Haag). Hans Poulsen (Julie Pandum, 19 2 7) is subtle and penetrating, and studies the same milieu. Otto Rung (1874– ) depicts in his novels (The Bird of Paradise) and in his dramas (The Bridge) the dregs of the urban population as well as the "high-brows." Poul Levin (1869-1929) takes his amiable and pleasant subjects from the life of the upper middle-class. Harry Soiberg (188o– ), in his Country of the Living (192o), has given a description of great value of the religious struggles among the population of Jutland. Lighter food is provided in the witty literary portraits and pastiches by Svend Leopold (1874– ), and in Svend Fleuron's (1874– ) widely-read animal stories.

After the World War.—The ferment of the period after the War has been noticeable in Denmark. Anker Larsen (1874– ) deals with general conceptions of life in his novels, especially in The Philosopher's Stone, which obtained the Gyldendal prize for literature in 1923. Among the younger writers the most original are Tom Kristensen (1893– ) (The Arabesque of Life) and Jakob Paludan (1896– ) (Birds round the Fire and The Field is Ripening). In lyrical poetry we find again Tom Kristensen, Emil Bonnelycke, the poet of town life, the epicurean Hans Hart vig Seedorff Pedersen (1892– ) (Vine and Ivy) and the pithy satirical painter of the provinces, Harald Bergstedt ).

The lyrical and dramatic works of Helge Rode (187o– ) and the work of Jute Thoger Larsen (d. 1928) deal more and more with religious and national questions. Finally we may mention Olaf Hansen, L. C. Nielsen and Kai Hoffmann, lyrical poets.

There are a few dramatists besides those already mentioned: Svend Lange, Helge Rode and the fertile Carl Gandrup (188o ) . The Jew Henri Nathansen (1868– ) deals with the troubles of his race. He has written the dramas Daniel Hertz and Within the Walls, and a novel, The Life of Hugo David.

There are many women writers, some important : Ingeborg M. Sick (1869– ) and Karin Michaelis (1872– ), whose novel The Dangerous Age (1 91 o) has been translated into most Euro pean languages. The novelist and dramatist Agnes Hennigsen (1868– ) depicts the love-life of modern women. Thit Jensen has discussed problems of feminine life. Gyrithe Lemcke (1866 ) has given a good description of the life of several genera tions of a merchant family during the course of a century (Ed wardsgave). The novels of Astrid Ehrencrone Kidde about Varmland are delicate and full of atmosphere. Inga Nalbandian (1879– ) has described the terror in Armenia with fiery hatred. (For the contribution of Icelandic authors to Danish literature see ICELANDIC LITERATURE.) Amongst historical writers since 187o are Troels Lund (1840 1921) who wrote Daily Life in Northern Europe during the I6th Century; the South Jute A. D. Joergensen (1840-1897); the historian of the Normans and Vikings Johannes Steenstrup (1848 ' 93 5) ; the critic of sources of mediaeval history Kristian Erslev (1852-193o); and Eric Arup (1876- ), who collaborated in a Danish history written from a social-economic viewpoint. Folk lorists were Svend Grundtvig, H. F. Feilberg (author of a Jutish dictionary) and Axel Olrik. In 1879 Trap finished the first edition of his great statistical and topographical work Denmark, and in 1905 appeared Bricka's biographical dictionary. Julius Lange (1838-96) is the author of the monumental work The Human Figure in the History of Art. Karl Madsen (1855– ) dealt with national art and with the Netherlands ; Frederik Poulsen (1876– ) with the art of the ancients; Wilhelm Wanscher (1875– ) especially with the Renaissance. A fascinating writer on the history of national literature is Vilhelm Andersen (1864 ) whose chief work is Times and Types in the History of the Danish Mind. Valdemar Vedel (1865– ) has given scholarly pictures of historical types from the middle-ages to the 17th cen tury (Lives of Heroes, Town and Burgher, Monastic Life, Ba roque) . Amongst younger writers, Paul V. Rubow (1896– ) is notable for outlook, method and critical sagacity. Harald Nielsen (1879– ) was the most independent judge of the liter ature of his day, but he became increasingly interested in the ob servation of the social and moral aspects of his own time, and a modern mediaevalist like Chesterton. In philosophy Harald Hoff ding (1843-1931) is the greatest name.

Finally we may mention the annual publications and the schol arly editions of the Danish Association for National Language and Literature (Sprog og Litteraturselskab) founded in 1911, which also edits the great Danish dictionary.

An extensive bibliography may be found in Krarup and Erichsen, Danish Historical Bibliography (1917), part iii. and in the Danish biographical Hand Lexicon (ended in 1926). (G. Cu.)