DEER, originally the name of one of two British species, the red-deer or the fallow deer, but now extended to all the family Cervidae (see PECORA, ARTIODACTYLA, UNGULATA). Briefly, deer may be defined as Pecora, in which antlers are usually present in the male; when no antlers are developed, the upper canine teeth are elongated and sabre-like. The antlers arise from pedicles or bony projections of the frontal bone; when a new antler is to be formed the summits of these pedicles become highly vascular and from the blood thus supplied a bony secretion is deposited. During its growth the antler is covered with soft, hairy skin, through which run a number of blood-vessels; this skin is known as the velvet. Towards the completion of the antler's growth a more or less prominent ring of bone, the burr or coronet, is de posited at its base just above the junction with the pedicle ; this tends to constrict the blood-vessels, and thus cut off the supply of blood from the antlers. When the antlers are freed from the velvet—a process usually assisted by the animal rubbing them against trees—they have a more or less rugose surface, owing to the grooves formed in them by the nutrient blood-vessels. In the antlers of the red-deer group, which form the type of the whole series, the following names have been applied to their different component parts and branches. The main shaft is termed the beam ; the first or lowest tine the brow-tine ; the second the bez-tine; the third the trez-tine, or royal; and the branched summit the crown, or surroyals.
The Cervidae are distributed all over Europe, Asia, northern Africa and America, but are unknown in Africa south of the Sahara. They are essentially woodland animals and where forced to dwell in open country, as in the highlands of Scotland, become stunted. Thus the prehistoric remains found in the Scottish peat-bogs indicate that a moderate sized, old time red deer (Cervus elaphus), which was a forest dweller, was a third as large again as well-grown modern forms. That this is not due to deterioration of the stock, but primarily to the conditions of the environment, is shown by the fact that the descendants of Scot tish deer introduced into New Zealand are amongst the largest specimens known.
The existing members of the family are arranged in two sub families, the Moschinae containing only a single species, the musk deer, and the Cervinae, including not only the true deer but the muntjaks, roe deer, mule deer, etc.
The subfamily Moschinae is distinguished by the presence of a gall-bladder and, in the males, a large caudal gland, and by the absence of antlers, face-glands and foot-glands. The hemispheres of the brain are comparatively smooth, with few convolutions. The subspecies are distributed over a large part of central and north-eastern Asia, from Gilgit southwards to Cochin China, and eastwards to Korea. The musk deer or kastura (Moschus moschi ferns) stands about 20 in. at the shoulder, with the hind-quarters elevated, but the Korean subspecies is smaller and more slenderly built. The hair is thick and brittle, resembling pith ; the general colour is brownish speckled with grey. The ears are large and the upper canine teeth of the males greatly enlarged, projecting well beyond the lip margin. The tail is very short, and the naked area of the muzzle is extensive. Musk deer are forest dwelling animals, usually found at considerable elevations ; the males secrete the "musk," from which the animal derives its name, in an abdominal gland. The record specimen carries canine teeth which project out beyond the jaw-bone for a distance of in.; these weapons appear to be chiefly used for fighting, the bucks engaging in severe combats during the pairing-season.
The Cervinae have no gall bladder or caudal gland, but there are foot-glands at least in the hind-limbs (absent in Pudu) ; antlers are, as a rule, developed and are characteristic of all true deer. The cerebral hemispheres present numerous convolutions. It is an interesting point that the ratio between body-weight and antler-weight increases with the absolute size of the animal. Thus in the red deer (Cervus elaphus), it was found that in stags of mean weight 74.4 kg. the antler-weight was 2.2% of the total, in stags of mean weight 130.6 kg., it was 3.03%, and in those of 211.8 kg., 4.21%, a point of great evolu tionary significance. The growth of the antlers depends also upon a number of other circumstances, which are favourable or unfavourable to the production of large, heavy antlers. Lime in the soil is very important and the amount of food available, de pending on the weather, is also influential. The successive antlers of a stag increase rapidly in weight during the first few years, but after the 11th year, and sometimes before, decrease again ("go back"). The percentage increments for the red deer from Warnham Park are:-2nd year, 230.6% 3rd, 72.2%; 4th, 38.6%; 5th, I 8.I % ; 6th, 8.5%; 7th, 5.2% (see J. S. Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1926). The antlers are used in fighting other stags and only exceptionally, or as a last resort, for defence, deer trusting rather to their fleetness to escape from an enemy. It is a remarkable fact, however, that antler-less stags, which fight with their fore-hooves, seem often to be able to vanquish their antlered rivals. Most deer (but not the roe) are polygamous, the males fighting fiercely for possession of the females.
The subfamily contains 19 genera which vary in size from the pudu, standing only about I3-1- in. in height, to the gigantic moose and elk.
IV. Axis.—Some authors regard the genera Axis, Hyelaphus, Rusa, Rucervus and Sika as subgenera of Cervus, but it seems more convenient to regard them as distinct. The chital or spotted deer (Axis axis) resembles Dama in the coat being spotted with white; the antlers are, however, very different, being long, slender and not palmated. They are three-tined, the brow-tine forming a right angle with the beam. These Indian deer are of medium size, standing about 36 in. at the shoulder; fine antlers measure as much as 39 in. along the outer curve.
V. Hyelaphus.—Closely allied to the chital, the hog-deer of the genus Hyelaphus are more stocky in build and the horn pedicles longer. The auditory bullae are very large and the coat is either spotted in summer or uniformly coloured throughout the year. The two species are confined to the Oriental region : H. porcinus is the best known.
VI. Rusa.—This genus includes large, medium-sized and small deer, normally carrying three-tined antlers in which the brow tine forms an acute angle with the beam. The coat is long and shaggy and uniformly coloured in the adults. The species are widely distributed over most of the Oriental region, extending northwards as far as Sze-chuan. Five species are recognized, of which the sambar (R. unicolor) is the best-known. This species is typically a very massive animal, standing as much as 54 in. at the shoulder; some stags carry exceptionally large antlers (45 to 5o in. in length).
VII. Rucervus.—In this genus, the species of which are all Vii. Rucervus.—In this genus, the species of which are all large, both the second (bez) and third tine are wanting and the beam divides into four or more branches ; the brow tine forms either a right angle or continuous curve with the beam. The range includes a large part of south-eastern Asia, extending to the island of Hainan. R. duvaucelli, the barasingha or swamp-deer (con fined to peninsular India), R. scliomburgki, Schomburgk's deer, (remarkable for its many-tined antlers) and R. thamin, the thamin (with cylindrical and rugose antlers), which have a long brow-tine forming a continuation of the curve of the beam), are the best known.
VIII. Sika.—The sika or Japanese deer of Japan and ManViii. Sika.—The sika or Japanese deer of Japan and Man- churia are medium-sized deer related to the true deer but with smaller and simpler antlers; the latter are flattened and usually four-tined. The coat is spotted with yellowish-white in summer; there is a white area bordered with black in the caudal region.
IX. Cervus.—In this genus, which includes the true deer, the antlers are more complex, usually having at least five tines. The tail is considerably shorter than in Sika, and the coat-colour uni form in the adult. The following species are here regarded as belonging to the typical genus :—the red deer (C. elaphus), wapiti (C. canadensis) , Yarkand stag (C. yarkandensis) , shou (C. wal lichi), Macneill's deer (C. macneilli), hangul (C. cashmiriensis) and Thorold's deer (C. albirostris). The typical species (C. elaphus) is widely distributed, ranging over the greater part of Europe (excluding the Italian peninsula) and extending eastwards to the Caucasus and Caspian provinces of Persia. The largest of these red deer is the maral (C. e. maral) from Persia, the height at the shoulder reaching as much as 44 ft. The wapiti (miscalled elk in America) is typically from eastern Canada; but in addition to the New World forms, several local races have been described from central and north-eastern Asia. The wapiti may stand as much as 5 ft. 4 in. at the shoulder and carries very massive ant lers. Both red deer and wapiti have been successfully introduced into New Zealand. The shou and the hangul occur in the Hima layan region.
davidianus, the mi-lu, or Pere David's deer; the distributional range is uncertain, as this deer is known only from a herd for merly kept in the gardens of the Summer palace, Pekin, and their descendants, notably at Woburn abbey, England.
XI. Odocoileus includes the white-tailed deer (0. virginianus), mule deer (0. hemionus) and black-tailed deer (0. columbianus). In this genus and those following unlike Dama, Cervus, etc., the lateral metacarpals are represented by their lower, and not their upper, extremities. The antlers are large and the beam dichotom ously forked; a subbasal snag is developed. The deer included in this group are exclusively American, the range extending from Alaska to Peru, Bolivia and northern Brazil. A large number of local races of the white-tailed deer have been described, from both North and South America. The mule deer and black-tailed deer are found only in North America.
XII. Blastocerus.—Closely allied to the foregoing, but without Xii. Blastocerus.—Closely allied to the foregoing, but without metatarsal gland. The antlers are large, complex and lack the sub-basal snag of Odocoileus. Two species are known :—B. dicho tomus, the marsh deer ; and the smaller B. bezoarticus, the Pampas deer, both South American. The former species is the largest South American deer, nearly equalling the red deer. B. bezoarticus is a little larger than a roe deer.
XIII. Hippocamelus is distinguished by the small, simple, Xiii. Hippocamelus is distinguished by the small, simple, dichotomously forked antlers, of which the front prong is the shorter, and absence of metatarsal glands. Two species occur, both in South America.
XV. Pudu.—This group contains two very small species, stand ing only 131 to 15 in. at the shoulder, with very small spike-like horns, both from South America.
XVI. Capreolus.—This genus, comprising the roe deer, is Xvi. Capreolus.—This genus, comprising the roe deer, is distinguished by the antlers arising almost vertically from the head ; the beam divides into two upright branches, the hinder one of which again divides. It includes three species, varying in height from 26 (typical roe) to 34 in. (C. pygargus) ; they range over central southern Europe across Asia north of the Himalayas to the Pacific coast. The roe is monogamous. During the rutting period, the stags pursue the does in circles and of ten several pairs may be seen thus engaged. Although the rut takes place in autumn, the female roe shows no signs of pregnancy until the fol lowing spring, and it is suggested that development of the embryo is suspended during the winter.
XVII. Alces.—The members of this genus are at once disXvii. Alces.—The members of this genus are at once dis- tinguishable by their massive palmated horns, bordered with snags, large size (height at shoulder 5r to 61 ft.) and broad, overhanging muzzles. The European elk (A. alces alces) at one time extended throughout the greater part of northern Europe and part of northern Asia, but is now extinct in most parts of Europe; the American moose (A. alces americanus) from eastern North America is the typical moose. During the winter, a herd of moose will often trample down a space in the soft snow ("moose yard") to give them firm footing. The gait of these animals is a curiously stiff-legged run, but they nevertheless possess a con siderable turn of speed notwithstanding their ungainly appearance.
XVIII. Rangifer.—The reindeer and caribou differ from all Xviii. Rangifer.—The reindeer and caribou differ from all the preceding genera in that the female bears antlers and the muzzle is completely hairy. In size medium or large; in some subspecies the antlers are massive and broadly palmated (R. tar andus terraenovae), in others long and slender (R. t. arcticus). The various races range over the northern parts of Europe and North America as far south as northern Columbia and New Brunswick. In many parts of its range, Rangi f er is migratory and is indispensable as a domestic animal to the Lapps of northern Europe.