POST-PALAEOLITHIC As mankind passes through stages marked by his discoveries of the crafts of stone-polishing, copper-, bronze- and iron-working, we find an immense variety of funerary custom, conditioned partly by natural and cultural resources, largely by belief as to the kind of life after death, and the relationship between dead and living. Cremation and Inhumation.—In Europe total cremation is found associated with the Late Neolithic banded-pottery and painted-pottery cultures, from Belgium to southern Russia. In humation was general over Europe in the earlier part of the bronze age,-but gradually in the later part it was largely replaced by cre mation, and from then on the two methods competed and alter nated in different countries until the spread of Christianity ban ished cremation from European civilization down to its modern revival. This practice has a long and varied history in other conti nents also. A mid-4th-millennium cemetery rich in gold and cop per objects was discovered at Ur (Mesopotamia) in 1927, and contained partial cremations which argued total cremations at an earlier epoch; by the end of that millennium inhumation prevailed alone at Ur. Cremation has been the usual Hindu method; frequent also among Buddhists; rare in China. It was general among the Aztecs of Mexico, reserved only for people of rank in the Maya civilization of Yucatan, and for occasional criminals among the Jews. In Egypt it is unknown.
These include (I) the preservation of the body by smoke-drying, embalming, etc. (see MUMMY) ; (2) exposure to birds of prey (as by the ancient Scythians, the Zoroastrians, the poorer Siamese), river-committal, or other methods little likely to help in identifying the remains; (3) dis posal in two stages—first, of the corpse by burial, exposure, etc., until the soft tissues disappear ; second, of the bones: either individually as in eastern South America (in jars), or collectively, as in neolithic British barrows, in the great neolithic hypogeum at Hal Saflieni (Malta), or in vaults of mediaeval English churches such as Hythe.
In many cultures and religions a definite position is given to the dead. The posture usually ranges from tightly contracted to fully extended, the former tending to be associated with more primitive, the latter with higher civiliza tions; the body usually lies on side or back, or is seated, and it is frequently orientated in a given direction. Thus in Egypt the tightly contracted pre-dynastic posture gradually loosens as the dynasties pass until full extension is reached in the Middle King dom. From the Old Kingdom onwards the body usually lies with head north, face to the sunrise. In England bodies lay contracted till shortly before our era; but orientation varied until Christianity taught that the feet of the dead should be towards the east, whither they must hasten at the last trump. The custom mainly holds in England still, but Norway and Holland have long abandoned it, except in country districts. Buddhist tradition— where Buddhists bury—dictates head north, face upward, as Buddha died. The Mohammedan must lie on his right side, facing Mecca; but the Japanese in his tub-shaped coffin sits upright, like some among our ancestors in chambered barrows.
Burials bare of all else but (originally) a garment or shroud are not infrequent, and betoken sometimes poverty, sometimes high beliefs : strict Jews must bury thus. But further protection is usually afforded. The pre-dynastic Egyptian and early Sumerian were often wrapped in matting, though pan shaped and bucket-shaped pottery coffins were already in use. Slipper-shaped pottery coffins were common among the Chorote gans (Nicaragua) and Parthians; large jars, in Greece at the end of the end millennium, in prehistoric southern India, in the Americas. Wicker-work, wood, stone, marble—all have played their part in coffining the dead. As to possessions : sometimes the latter have none ; sometimes a sophisticated civilization cheats them with useless imitations; but mostly the objects are real, valued in life and retained in death.
The use of caves as sepulchres continued in the Neolithic period—usually as sepulchres alone; and in the Late Neolithic were excavated the first artificial burial-caves. In Med iterranean lands the single "cave" entered direct from cliff-face then added an entrance-passage, as the trench in level ground gained a side-chamber; then both gradually developed extra chambers and niches. These elaborations culminated in catacombs such as those of Panticapoeum (Crimea) and—most elaborate of all—of Rome. Megalithic tomb-architecture sprang up in Neo lithic, flowered and died in Bronze (see MEGALITHS). In Neolithic times the first barrows also were piled up as burial-places and memorials. But as mankind elaborates—plays out—these various ideas conceived in his imaginative adolescence, he reverts ever and again to the simple grave as standard; while, throughout, we find the simple grave persists for simple folk.
E.R.E. s.v. "Death and Disposal of the Bibliography.--Hastings, E.R.E. s.v. "Death and Disposal of the Dead" (1911) ; M. Ebert, Reallexikon der V orgeschichte (1924— ) ; C. E. Vulliamy, Immortal Man (1926). (M. L. T.) In the early times of Neanderthal man the bodies of the dead were buried with some ceremony, and, with the apparent excep tion of one or two very primitive tribes, there is no known people to-day which does not dispose of its dead in some well-defined, traditional manner. The treatment of the corpse, however, is not as a rite complete in itself ; it is but an incident in a series of rites. When a community loses one of its members, especially anyone of importance, it suffers a shock, and the rites connected with the dead are to be regarded as the stereotyped behaviour of society by which it readjusts itself during such a period of strain and emo tional disintegration. For this reason their correct performance is important to society. The more serious the loss, that is, the greater the value of the deceased to the community, the more elaborate will these rites be and the greater the number of people which they concern. The very aged, on the other hand, and those who have long been ill and who, therefore, have for some time taken little part in the life of the community, often receive scant attention at death and may even be buried alive, since, socially, they are in a sense already dead.
There are many variations in the ceremonies connected with death, and in the treatment of the corpse, but each has its recog nized procedure from which deviations are rare, and in all there seem to be three distinct phases. The first lasts from the time of death, or when all hope of the sick person's recovery is abandoned, until the beginning of the rites directly connected with the disposal of the body; the second is during the performance of these rites; the third is covered by the period from the disposal of the body till the cessation of mourning.
When the individual is dead, or regarded as dead, the corpse is usually washed and decorated and a ceremony of leave-taking may be gone through, often accompanied by the presentation of gifts. The duration of this period varies considerably according to the importance of the deceased or to the affection felt for him. For a commoner a day or two may suffice but for a chief it may occupy many weeks and the body is sometimes partially embalmed to prevent decomposition from setting in during this time. If it is suspected that death was due to foul play, especially sorcery, omens are now carefully observed or the body is asked to indicate in some recognized manner the guilty person or village. Friends and relatives having now said farewell, the body is laid to rest.
The number of ways in which a body can be disposed, are six: inhumation or burial, cremation, preservation, exposure, water burial and hastening decomposition by artificial means. Occasion ally the bodies are exposed for destruction by wild animals. Many or all of these methods are sometimes found in use among a single people. Where this is so, the mode of disposal of the body is usually determined by his social status, by membership of some social group, his achievements in life or the cause of his death. In general, such methods as preservation and the artificial hastening of decomposition are reserved mainly for those who have been important in life. Those who are unimportant to society are usually given a form of disposal which entails little trouble or expense. The cause of a person's death often affects profoundly the fate both of the body and soul. A person who has died by falling from a tree, or by violence in peace or war, is usually treated differently from his fellows, and special treatment is al most always allotted to suicides and women who have died in childbed. The reasons for such distinctions are not always clear but, in general, these unfortunates are considered to be undesir able. Those who are earth-bound are usually feared and measures are taken to prevent their souls from troubling the living, such as putting thorns into the feet of the corpse so that the spirit may not walk, placing stones or briars over the grave that it may not escape thence, or burning the body and so destroying the soul.
Where inhumation is practised there is often a cemetery, usually situated at a little distance from the village, where all of that community are buried; or there may be separate ones for the different kindreds which compose it ; occasionally one is reserved for men, and another for women. These are often carefully tended and are sometimes used for the meetings of the village council. Frequently, however, cemeteries are absent and the site of a man's grave is either fixed by tradition, as, for in stance, in his garden or before the threshold of his house, or selected by himself or his heirs. The most usual form of grave is a trench, sometimes shallow, occasionally of considerable depth, but some are more elaborate. A common form is a pit at the bot tom of which a horizontal recess is excavated and in this the corpse is laid, the pit being usually but not always filled in afterwards. In some areas the grave is an underground chamber approached by a subterranean passage. To prevent the soil touching the corpse the sides of the grave are sometimes lined with wood, stone, leaves or mats, or the body itself is carefully wrapped up. Wooden cof fins are used by some tribes, or, among sea-faring peoples, the deceased is buried in his canoe. The superstructure of the grave may be only a low hummock of earth, but, over the remains of important people, large mounds are often erected. A small hut is often set up over or beside the grave, to protect the soul (which usually lingers near the body until decomposition is complete) from the inclemencies of the weather. Grave-stones are also erected as memorials and as temporary abodes for the spirits when they desire to visit the living.
The destruction of the corpse by fire has a world wide distribution. Often it is restricted to a certain class of people, notably chiefs, but sometimes, where other methods are normal, it is used for lunatics, workers of black magic and other dangerous members of society. When such people are burnt the remains are generally thrown away. In other cases they are buried, cast ceremonially into water or placed in ossuaries belonging to a kindred or village group. Sometimes some member of the deceased's family keeps them, or certain of them, and treasures them as a link with the soul of the departed. The construction of the pyre and the kind of timber used are generally decreed by custom, since any deviation brings misfortune on the soul of the deceased.
The practice of preserving the bodies of the dead is not restricted to ancient Egypt. It is found to-day among tribes scattered throughout the world and even among such piim itive ones as those of Torres straits. Generally it is reserved for chiefs or priests. The methods used vary considerably. Preserva tives, such as alcohol, honey, salt, butter or the shavings of certain woods are common; sometimes the body is dried by smoking, usually preceded by evisceration or massage to extract the juices; and sometimes it is placed in a sealed wooden effigy or coffin. In one tribe in East Africa, a fire is lit on the top of the grave with the intention of baking the body.
More common than preservation is the custom of exposing the dead on trees, rocks or on platforms erected in the gardens or the bush. Where the atmosphere is hot and dry this may result in desiccation which possibly is intended. Else where the corpse is left to decompose and the bones are collected and kept as relics or placed in an ossuary. During the period of decomposition the living often visit the body and sometimes rub themselves with its juices probably in order to link themselves more closely to the deceased or to absorb his virtues. Exposure may, in some places, be closely allied to burial, for where.there is not sufficient depth of soil to dig a grave (as in islands of coralline and volcanic formation), the obvious alternative is to lay the body on the ground.
Artificial means to hasten de composition are often reserved f or important men. It is some times effected by warming the body over a slow fire or by washing it regularly and scraping away the putrifying flesh. If only a por tion of the body is to be cleaned, such as the head, which is treasured by many who have an ancestor cult, this may be wrenched off and placed in a termites' nest to be eaten clean, while the rest of the body is disposed elsewhere.
To fling a corpse into the water is an easy mode of disposal and is, therefore, of ten the fate of slaves, for eigners or people of no account. But there are tribes among whom it is not considered an undistinguished end, and some individuals may even request to be buried at sea, because they "like wash all time 'long salt water." Certain parts of the coast are in some islands set aside as water cemeteries where, after being wrapped up to protect them from the fish, and weighted to prevent them from being washed on shore, the bodies are sunk. In the Solomon islands, however, where sharks are regarded with veneration, the dead are laid on the reef for these creatures to complete the burial. A method (not strictly "water-burial") is that of placing the deceased in a canoe and pushing it out to sea. This was formerly practised in many parts of Polynesia, and is recorded from the Cameroons, where the coastal inhabitants set the figure of a bird on the prow of a funeral canoe to guide it on its way because those for whom it is done are descendants of an immigrant people who, at death, must return across the sea to the land of their origin. This may also explain the other forms of sea-burial and likewise the use of a canoe as a coffin; certainly the latter is sometimes definitely connected with an after world which must be reached by boat.
Wherever inhumation, cremation or exposure are the custom, the position in which the body is placed and the orientation in the grave or on pyre or platform, are important. Even so insignificant a point as whether the body is laid on its right or left side may affect the fate of the soul in the land of the dead. The corpse may lie extended on its back or front ; or be seated upright or recline with flexed knees. Sometimes if buried on land or in the sea it may be fixed as though standing, the erect position in the water being obtained by weighting the feet. A very common position for burial is lying on one side with knees drawn up and the hands raised to the face as in sleep, though it has also been suggested that this is in imitation of an infant before birth.
Often there is no definite orientation. Even in one cemetery the bodies may be facing in many different directions. But it is fre quently the custom for the head to point or the face to look to wards that point of the compass where lies the other world or the land whence the people have migrated.
Secondary Disposal.—The disposal of the remains after cre mation and exposure is a necessary part of the funeral rites. But even where inhumation is practised the bones are sometimes ex humed and laid in a special spot, often as a regular part of the ritual which may take place at a definite time after the burial or on a great annual ceremony when the bones of all who have died within the year are finally laid to rest. Among people who have a cult of the dead the skull is often kept by the living to be an abode for the soul if it wishes to visit this world. Other bones are also sometimes kept, not as shrines, but for use in magical cere monies or for the making of weapons. This secondary disposal often marks the close of the period of mourning and may be for the deceased the last act in the passage rite (see PASSAGE RITEs), as a ceremony whereby the soul is finally despatched to the other world of which community it is henceforth a full member. Some times, however, exhumation and secondary disposal are only per formed under exceptional circumstances. If a soul troubles the living, the body may be dug up and either removed elsewhere or destroyed by fire or water. Often the soul itself indicates that it desires such a removal, and it may demand several changes of abode before it finds one to its liking. It expresses its wishes either to a relative in dreams, or by causing sickness and mis f ortune.
Grave-goods.—To the savage the dead closely resemble the living in both psychological and physical make-up. It often seems that at death the soul is conceived as being weak, just as its body was. To give it increased vitality the mourners cut themselves and allow the blood to drip on to the corpse, for blood is the elixir of life. The laying of food on the grave and the lighting of fires are plainly the result of this material conception of the soul, but the reasons given for the practice vary. Sometimes the jour ney to the other world is long and the food is for the support of the traveller on his way. In other places it is intended for the comfort of the disembodied creature during the time that it hangs about its home, before departing to join its ancestors. The
destroyed or buried with the body are definitely for use in the land of the dead, which in physical and social formation is very like that of the living. In it a man will need those things which were valuable in life—weapons, tools, wealth. They are therefore buried or burnt with him ; if buried they are often broken in order that their non-material essence may be released. Pots have been found specially made as grave-goods, with holes in the bottom or with uncompleted designs, through which this spiritual part can escape. The killing of a man's favourite wife or slaves is a further logical result of this conception of life after death, for he will continue to need them to minister to his wants. To avoid the actual destruction of the property cheap imitations may be buried or burnt as in China to-day, or the objects may be laid on the corpse while it lies in state and removed before dis posal: in this way the dead man retains the use of them in the other world and his heirs have the use of them in this.
Rivers, "The Primitive Conception of Bibliography.-W. H. R. Rivers, "The Primitive Conception of Death," in The Hibbert Journal, vol. x. (1912) ; E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, pp. 396 ff. (trans. J. Swain, 1915) ; A. R. Radcliffe Brown, The Andaman Islanders, pp. 285 ff. (192 2) ; B. Malinowski, "Science, Magic and Religion," in Science, Religion and Reality (edit. J. Needham, 1925). See also D. I. Bushnell, "Burials of the Algonquian, Siouan and Caddoan Tribes," in The Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 83.
H. W.)
