ENCYCLOPAEDIAS AND DICTIONARIES Alsted's Encyclopaedia.—Johann Heinrich Alsted, born 1588, died 1638, published Encyclopaedia septem tomis distincta (1630). It treats of a wide range of subjects, including not only the more important sciences, but paradoxologia, the art of explain ing paradoxes; dipnosophistica, the art of philosophizing while feasting; cyclognomica, the art of conversing well de quovis scibili, and tabacologia, the nature, use and abuse of tobacco. Alsted's encyclopaedia was received with very great applause, and was highly valued. Lami (Entretiens, 1684) thought it almost the only encyclopaedia which did not deserve to be despised. Alsted's learning was very various. He wrote not long before the appearance of encyclopaedias in modern languages superseded his own and other Latin books, and but a short time before the alphabetical arrangement began to prevail over the methodical.
Jean de Magnon, historiographer to the king of France, under took to write an encyclopaedia in French heroic verse, which was to fill ten volumes of 20,000 lines each, and to render libraries merely a useless ornament. But he did not live to finish it, as he was killed at night by robbers on the Pont Neuf in Paris, in 1662. The part he left was printed as La Science universelle (1663 ) 10 books containing about Ii,000 lines. They begin with the nature of God, and end with the history of the fall of man. His verses, say Chaudon and Delandine, are perhaps the most nerve less, incorrect, obscure and flat in French poetry; yet the author had been the friend of Moliere, and had acted with him in comedy.
Louis Moreri (born in 1643, died in 168o at Paris) wrote a dictionary of history, genealogy and biography, Le Grand Dic tionnaire historique, ou le melange curieux de l'histoire sacree et profane (Lyons, 1674), the 2oth edition of which was published in 1759. Moreri's dictionary, still very useful, was of great value and importance, although not the first of the kind.
Johann Jacob Hofmann (1635-1706), son of a schoolmaster at Basle, which he is said never to have left, and where he was pro fessor of Greek and History, wrote Lexicon universale historico geograpliico-chronologico-poetico-philologicum (1677), a diction ary of history, biography, geography, genealogies of princely families, chronology, mythology and philology. In 1683 he pub lished a continuation in two volumes. From the great extent of his plan, many articles, especially in history, are superficial and faulty.
Etienne Chauvin was born at Nimes in 1640. He fled to Rotter dam on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and in 1688 sup plied Bayle's place in his lectures on philosophy. In 1695 he was invited to go as professor of philosophy to Berlin, where he be came the representative of the Cartesian philosophy. He wrote Lexicon rationale, sive thesaurus philosopizicus ordine alphabetico digestus (1692). An improved and enlarged edition was printed as Lexicon pliilosophicu,n secundis curis in 1713. This great work may be considered as a dictionary of the Cartesian philosophy.
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) wrote a very important and valuable work, Dictionnaire historique et critique (Rotterdam, 1697). His design was to make a dictionary of the errors and omissions of Moreri and others, but he was much embarrassed by the numer ous editions and supplements of Moreri. The fourth edition (4 vols., Rotterdam, 17 20) was much enlarged from his manuscripts, and was edited by Prosper Marchand. It contains 3,132 pages besides tables, etc. It was translated into English from the second edition in 1709. Prosper Marchand, editor of the fourth edition, left at his death on Jan. 14, 1756, materials for a supplementary Dictionnaire historique (La Haye, 1758). It had occupied his leisure moments for 4o years. Much of his work was written on small scraps of paper, sometimes 20 in half a page and no larger than a nail, in such small characters that not only the editor but the printer had to use powerful magnifiers. Bayle's dictionary is still a work of great importance and value.
Vincenzo Maria Coronelli, a Franciscan friar, who was born in Venice about 1650, made cosmographer to the republic in 1685, and became general of his order in 1702, began in 1701 to publish a general alphabetical encyclopaedia, written in Italian, at which he had been working for 3o years, Biblioteca universale sacro pro f ana. It was to explain more than 300,00o words, to include history and biography as well as all other subjects, and to extend to 45 volumes folio. But seven volumes only were published (Venice, 1701-06), A to Caque. This work is remarkable for the extent and completeness of its plan, and for being the first great alphabetical encyclopaedia, as well as for being written in a mod ern language, but it was hastily written and very incorrect. Never, perhaps, says Tiraboschi, was there so quick a writer; he com posed a folio volume as easily as others would a page.
The First Alphabetical Encyclopaedias in English.—The first alphabetical encyclopaedia written in English was the work of a London clergyman, John Harris (born about 1667, elected first secretary of the Royal Society in 1709, died 1719), Lexicon technicurn, or an universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (17o4). As in many subsequent English encyclopaedias the pages are not numbered. It professes not merely to explain the terms used in the arts and sciences, but the arts and sciences themselves. The author omits theology, antiquity, biography and poetry. This volume was reprinted in 1708. A second volume of 1,419 pages appeared in 1710, with a list of about 1,300 subscribers. A great part of it consisted of mathematical and astronomical tables, as he intended his work to serve as a small mathematical library. He was allowed by Sir Isaac Newton to print his treatise on acids. The mathematical and physical part is considered very able. He often mentions his authorities, and gives lists of books on par ticular subjects, as botany and chronology. His dictionary was long very popular. The fifth edition was published in 1736.
Johann Hubner, rector of the Johanneum in Hamburg, born 1668, wrote prefaces to two dictionaries written in German, which bore his name, and were long popular. The first was Reales Staats Zeitungs- and Conversations-Lexicon (Leipzig 1704) ; the second, published as a supplement, was Curieuses and reales Natur Kunst- Berg- Gewerb- and Handlungs-Lexicon (Leipzig, 1712), frequently reprinted to 1792. The first relates to the political state of the world, treating of religion, orders, States, rivers, towns, castles, mountains, genealogy, war, ships; the second to nature, science, art and commerce. They were the work of many authors, among whom Paul Jacob Marpurger, a celebrated and volumin ous writer on trade and commerce, was an extensive contributor.
Johann Theodor Jablonski, who was born at Danzig in 1654, and was appointed secretary to the newly founded Prussian Academy in 1700, when he went to Berlin, published Allgemeines Lexicon der Kiinste and Wissenschaf ten (Leipzig, 1721), a short but excel lent encyclopaedia still valued in Germany. It does not include theology, history, geography, biography and genealogy. He not only names his authorities, but gives a list of their works.
Ephraim Chambers (q.v.) published his Cyclopaedia; or an Universal Dictionary of Art and Sciences, containing an Explica tion of the Terms and an Account of the Things Signified thereby in the several Arts, Liberal and Mechanical, and the several Sci ences, Human and Divine, in 1728 (2 vols.) . Chambers endeav oured to connect the scattered articles relating to each subject by a system of references, and to consider "the several matters, not only in themselves, but relatively, or as they respect each other ; both to treat them as so many wholes and as so many parts of some greater whole." Under each article he refers to the subject to which it belongs, and also to its subordinate parts; thus Copyhold has a reference to Tenure, of which it is a par ticular kind, and other references to Rolls, Custom, Manor, Fine, Charterland and Freehold. His work, he says, is a collection, not the produce of one man's wit, for that would go but a little way, but of the whole commonwealth of learning. To the subjects given by Harris he adds theology, metaphysics, ethics, politics, logic, grammar, rhetoric and poetry, but excludes history, biog raphy, genealogy, geography and chronology, except their techni cal parts. A second edition appeared in 1738. A few articles were added and some others enlarged, but he was prevented from doing more because "the booksellers were alarmed with a bill in parliament containing a clause to oblige the publishers of all improved editions of books to print their improvements sepa rately." The bill after passing the Commons was unexpectedly thrown out by the Lords; but fearing that it might be revived, the booksellers thought it best to retreat though more than 20 sheets had been printed. An Italian translation (Venice, 1748 49), was the first complete Italian encyclopaedia. When Chambers was in France in 1739 he rejected very favourable proposals to publish an edition there dedicated to Louis XV. His work was judiciously, honestly and carefully done, and long maintained its popularity. At his death, on May 15, 1740, he had collected and arranged materials for seven new volumes. The Supplement, edited hastily by Dr. (later Sir) John Hill, was published in As Hill was a botanist, the botanical part, which had been very defective in the Cyclopaedia, was the best. Abraham Rees (1743-1825), a Nonconformist minister, published a revised and enlarged edition, "with the supplement and modern improvements incorporated in one alphabet" (1778-88). It was published in 418 numbers at 6d. each. Rees said that he added more than new articles.
A work on a new plan was published by Dennis de Coetlogon, a Frenchman naturalized in England, who styled himself "Knight of St. Lazare, M.D., and member of the Royal Academy of Angers"—An Universal History of Arts and Sciences (2 vols., . He "endeavours to render each treatise as complete as pos sible, avoiding above all things needless repetitions, and never puzzling the reader with the least reference." The subject matter is sometimes curious. The author says that his work is the only one of the kind, and that he wrote out with his own hand every line, even the index. But notwithstanding the novelty of his plan, his work does not seem ever to have been popular.
Gianfrancesco Pivati (1689-1764), secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Venice, who had published in a 4to volume containing a Dizionario universale, wrote Nuovo dizionario scien tifico e curiouo sacroprofano (Venice, 1746-51, io vols., 597 plates). It is a general encyclopaedia, including geography, but not history or biography. It is remarkable for the number of its plates, which are engraved on copper.
De Gua's papers were handed over to Diderot in great con fusion. He soon persuaded the publishers to undertake a far more original and comprehensive work. His friend d'Alembert undertook to edit the mathematics. Other subjects were allotted to 21 contributors, each of whom received the articles on his subject in Mills's translation to serve as a basis for his work. But they were in most cases so badly composed and translated, so full of errors and omissions, that they were not used. The con tributions were to be finished in three months, but none was ready in time, except Music by Rousseau, which he admits was hastily and badly done. Diderot was imprisoned at Vincennes, on July 29, 1749, for his Lettre sur les aveugles. He was closely confined for 28 days, and was then for three months and ten days a prisoner on parole in the castle. This did not stop the printing, though it caused delay. The prospectus by Diderot appeared in Nov. 1750. The work was to form 8 vols., with at least 60o plates. The first volume was published in July 1751; the second appeared in Jan. 1752. An arret of the council suppressed both volumes as injurious to the king's authority and to religion. Malesherbes, director general of the Librairie, stopped the issue of vol. ii. on Feb. 9, and on the 21st went with a lettre de cachet to Lebreton's to seize the plates and the mss., but did not find even those of vol. iii., as they had been taken to his own house by Diderot and one of the publishers. The Jesuits tried to continue the work, but in vain. It was less easy, says Grimm, than to ruin philosophers. The Gov ernment had to request the editors to resume the work as one honourable to the nation. Vol. iii., rather improved by the delay, appeared in Oct. 1753; and vol. vii., completing G, in Nov. The clamours against the work soon recommenced. D'Alembert retired in Jan. 1758, weary of sermons, satires and intolerant and absurd censors. The parlement of Paris, by an arret of Jan. 23, I i 59, stopped the sale and distribution of the Encyclopedie and other books; and by an arret of Feb. 6, ordered them all to be burnt, but referred the Encyclopedie for examination to a com mission of nine. A arret du conseil (March 7) revoked the priv ilege of 1746, and stopped the printing. Vol. viii. was then in the press. Malesherbes warned Diderot that he would have his papers seized next day ; and when Diderot said he could not make a selec tion, or find a place of safety at such short notice, Malesherbes said, "Send them to me, they will not look for them there." Malesherbes, Choiseul and Mme. de Pompadour protected the work. Diderot obtained private permission to go on printing, but with a strict charge not to publish any part until the whole was finished. The Jesuits were condemned by the parlement of Paris in 1762, and by the king in Nov. 1764. Vol. i. of plates appeared in 1762, and vol. viii. to xvii., ten volumes of text, pages, completing the work, with the 4th volume of plates in 1765, when there were 4,250 subscribers. The work was secretly distributed in Paris and Versailles. The general assembly of the clergy, on June 20, 1765, approved articles in which it was con demned, and on Sept. 27 adopted a memoire to be presented to the king. They were forbidden to publish their acts which fav oured the Jesuits, but Lebreton was required to give a list of his subscribers, and was put into the Bastille for eight days in 1766. A royal order was sent to the subscribers to deliver their copies to the lieutenant of police. Voltaire in 1774 relates that, at a petit souper of the king at Trianon, there was a debate on the composition of gunpowder. Mme. de Pompadour said she did not know how her rouge or her silk stockings were made. The duc de la Valliere regretted that the king had confiscated their encyclopaedias, which could decide everything. The king said he had been told that the work was most dangerous, but as he wished to judge for himself, he sent for a copy. Three servants with difficulty brought in the 21 volumes. The company found everything they looked for, and the king allowed the confiscated copies to be returned. Lebreton, who had the largest printing office in Paris, employed 5o workmen in printing the last ten volumes. He had the articles set in type exactly as the authors sent them in, and when Diderot had corrected the last proof of each sheet, he and his foreman, hastily, secretly and by night, unknown to his partners in the work, cut out whatever seemed to them daring, or likely to give offence, mutilated most of the best articles without any regard to the consecutiveness of what was left, and burnt the manuscript. The printing of the work was nearly finished when Diderot, having to consult one of his great philosophical articles in the letter S, found it entirely muti lated. He was confounded, says Grimm, at discovering the atrocity of the printer; all the best articles were in the same confusion. This discovery put him into a state of frenzy and despair from rage and grief. Diderot at first refused to correct the remaining proofs, or to do more than write the explanations of the plates. He required, according to Mme. de Vandeul, that a copy (now at Leningrad with his library) should be printed with columns in which all was restored. Diderot's articles were on very many sub jects, but principally on grammar, history, morality, philosophy, literature and metaphysics. As a contributor, his special depart ment of the work was philosophy, and arts and trades. He passed whole days in workshops, and began by examining a machine carefully, then he had it taken to pieces and put together again, then he watched it at work, and lastly worked it himself. He thus learned to use such complicated machines as the stocking and cut velvet looms. He at first received 1,200 livres a year as editor, but afterwards 2,500 livres a volume, besides a final sum of 20, 000 livres. All the publishers made large fortunes; their expenses amounted to I,158,000 livres and their profits to 2,162,000.
In the Encyclopedie, as in Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia, history and biography were excluded, except incidentally; thus Aristotle's life is given in the article Aristotelisme. The science to which an article belongs is generally named at the beginning of it, references are given to other articles, and the authors' names are marked by initials, of which lists are given in the earlier volumes, but sometimes their names are subscribed in full. Articles by Diderot have no mark, and those inserted by him as editor have an asterisk prefixed. Among the contributors were Voltaire, Euler, Marmontel, Montesquieu, D'Anville, D'Holbach and Tur got, the leader of the new school of economists which made its first appearance in the pages of the Encyclopedie. No encyclopae dia perhaps has been of such political importance, or has occupied so conspicuous a place in the civil and literary history of its cen tury. It sought not only to give information, but to guide opinion. It was, as Rosenkranz says (Diderot, i. 157), theistic and heret ical. It was opposed to the church, then all-powerful in France, and it treated dogma historically. It was, as Desnoiresterres says (Voltaire, v. 164), a war machine; as it progressed, its attacks both on the church and the still more despotic Government, as well as on Christianity itself, became bolder and more undisguised, and it was met by opposition and persecution unparalleled in the history of encyclopaedias. Its execution is very unequal, and its articles of very different value. It was not constructed on a regular plan, or subjected to sufficient supervision; articles were sent in by the contributors, and not seen by the editors until they were in type. In each subject there are some excellent articles, but others are very inferior, and references are often given to articles which do not exist. The style is too generally loose, digressive and in exact ; dates are seldom given; and discursiveness, verbosity and dogmatism are frequent faults. Voltaire was constantly demand ing truth, brevity and method, and said it was built half of mar ble and half of wood. D'Alembert compared it to a harlequin's coat, in which there is some good stuff but too many rags. Diderot was dissatisfied with it as a whole; much of it was compiled in haste ; and carelessly written articles and incompetent contribu tors were admitted for want of money to pay good writers. Zed ler's Universal Lexicon is on the whole much more useful for reference than its far more brilliant successor. The books attack ing and defending the Encyclopedie are very many. No original work of the 18th century, says Lanfrey, has been more deprecated, ridiculed and calumniated. It has been called chaos, nothingness, the Tower of Babel, a work of disorder and destruction, the gospel of Satan and even the ruins of Palmyra.