FREDERICK II., known as "the Great" (1712-1786), king of Prussia, was born on Jan. 24, 1712. Two elder brothers having died in infancy, he became heir of his father, Frederick William I., who brought him up with extreme rigour, in the hope that he would become a hardy soldier, and "acquire thrift and frugality." The result was just the opposite. Encouraged by his mother, and under the influence of his governess Madame de Roucoulle, and of his first tutor Duhan, a French refugee, Frederick acquired a taste for literature and music, secretly learned Latin, which his father had forbidden, scoffed at religion, refused to ride or shoot, preferred the French language, literature and dress, and openly despised German habits and life. His discontent was heartily shared by his sister, Wilhelmina, a bright and intelligent young princess for whom Frederick had a warm affection.
Frederick William, seeing his son absorbed in frivolous and effeminate amusements, conceived for him an intense dislike, which had its share in causing him to break off the negotiations for a double marriage between the prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the princess Amelia, daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick had been so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the English court and to vow that he would marry Amelia or no one. Frederick William's hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed itself in violent outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was his treat ment that Frederick frequently thought of running away and taking refuge at the English court. He at last resolved to do so during a journey which he made with the king to south Germany in 1730. He was helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and Lieutenant Keith ; but the secret was found out.
Frederick was arrested, deprived of his rank as crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the fortress of Ciistrin. Keith escaped; but Katte was captured and sentenced by court martial to imprisonment for life. This sentence the king changed to one of death and, to enforce the example, had Katte beheaded in Frederick's presence (Nov. 5, 1730). The object-lesson had some effect. The prison chaplain reported that Frederick's heart was changed, while the Emperor himself interceded for him. His father released him from solitary confinement and sent him to work in the auditing office of the departments of war and agricul ture at Ciistrin, pending the earning of a full pardon. "The whole town shall be his prison," wrote the king; "I will give him employment, from morning to night, in the departments of war, and agriculture, and of the Government. He shall work at finan cial matters, receive accounts, read minutes and make extracts. . . . But if he kicks or rears again, he shall forfeit the succession to the crown, and even, according to circumstances, life itself." Frederick's submissive conduct under these conditions earned him gradual alleviations. On Nov. 3o, 1731, he was allowed again to appear in uniform, and in 1732 was made colonel in command of the regiment at Neuruppin. On June 12, 1733, he married the princess Elizabeth Christina, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bevern, a niece of the Empress and cousin of Maria Theresa. He was given the estate of Rheinsberg, near Neuruppin, and there he lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were perhaps the happiest of his life, although the marriage, con cluded by his father's orders, was unhappy. He seldom visited his wife, who was childless, treating her harshly and even brutally. His conscientious performance of his duties, however, at last earned his father's esteem. At the same time, he was able to indulge his personal tastes.
He carried on a lively correspondence with Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a diligent student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his best-known works were written at this time--Considerations sur l'etat present du corps politique de l'Europe and his Anti-Macclaiavel. In the former he calls attention to the growing strength of Austria and France, and insists on the necessity of some third power, by which he clearly means Prussia, to counterbalance their excessive influence. The second treatise, which was issued by Voltaire in The Hague in 1740, contains a generous exposition of some of the favourite ideas of the 18th-century philosophers respecting the duties of sovereigns, which may be summed up in the famous sentence: "the prince is not the absolute master, but only the first servant of his people." It was during this period that he became a free mason, and finally repudiated Christianity.
On May 31, 1740, he became king. He maintained all the forms of government established by his father, but ruled in a far more enlightened spirit; he tolerated every form of religious opinion, abolished torture, except for whole-sale murder, conspiracy, lese-majeste and high treason, was most careful to secure an exact and impartial administration of justice, and, while keeping the reins of government strictly in his own hands, allowed every one with a genuine grievance free access to his presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants was dis banded, but the real interests of the army were carefully studied, for Frederick realized that the two pillars of the Prussian state were sound finances and a strong army. On Oct. 20, 1740, the emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make extensive military preparations, with a view to asserting the ancient claims put forward by his house, but always denied by Austria, to the three Silesian duchies. Frederick undoubtedly be lieved in the justice of his claims, and the lawfulness of repudiat ing, for Silesia, his father's guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction. He confessed, however, himself, that his scheme was prompted by "the desire of glory, even curiosity," and "a means of acquiring reputation and of increasing the power of the State." Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event of his rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa against her enemies. The queen, who regarded the proposal as that of a mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon Frederick immediately invaded Silesia with an army of 30,00o men. His first victory was gained at Mollwitz on April Io, 1741. Under the impression, in consequence of a furious charge of Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he rode rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle—a mistake which gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked personal courage. A second Prus sian victory was gained at Chotusitz, near Caslau, on May 17, 1742; and Maria Theresa was forced to conclude the Peace of Breslau (June 11, 1742), ceding Breslau to Prussia, Upper and Lower Silesia as far as the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz. Frederick made good use of the next two years, fortifying his new territory, and repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war. By the death of the prince of East Friesland, without heirs, he also gained possession of that country
. In the same year, in view of Austria's increasing strength and determination to recover Silesia, Frederick formed the union of Frankfurt with Bavaria, the Elector Palatine and Hesse-Cassel, concluded a secret treaty with France (June 4, 1744) and suddenly invaded Bohemia, taking Prague. He was forced to retreat, but in 1745 won a series of victories, and the Peace of Dresden (Dec. 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a second time the possession of Silesia. (See AUs
