Out Stones
Out Stones. This Class Covers All Squared Stones With Smoothly Dressed Beds And Joints. As A Rule, All The Edges Of Cut Stones Are Drafted, And Between The Drafts The Stone Is Smoothly Dressed. The Face, However, Is Often Left Rough Where The Construc Tion Is Massive. "in Architecture There ...
Outlines Of The Design
Outlines Of The Design. Except For The Effect Of Waves And Ice (§ 957), The Width On Top Could Be Zero. But In Practice The Top Of The Dam Is Generally Used For A Footway Or A Roadway, And Hence A Considerable Width Is Required Independent Of Any Question Of ...
Physiological Effect Of Compressed
Physiological Effect Of Compressed Air. In The Application Of The Compressed-air Process, The Question Of The Ability Of The Human System To Bear The Increased Pressure Of The Air Becomes Very Important. After Entering The Air-lock, As The Pressure Increases, The First Sensation Experienced Is One Of Great Heat. As ...
Pile Driving Machines
Pile-driving Machines. Pile-driving Machines May Be Classified According To The Character Of The Driving Power, Which May Be (1) A Falling Weight, (2) The Force Of An Explosive, Or (3) The Erosive Action Of A Jet Of Water. Piles Are Sometimes Set In Holes Bored With A Well-auger, And The ...
Pivot Piers
Pivot Piers. Pivot Piers, I.e., The Center Piers —for Swing Bridges, Differ From Piers For Fixed Spans Only In That They Are Circular, Are Larger On Top, And Usually Have Plumb Sides. Pivot Piers Are Protected From The Pressure Of Ice And From Shock By Boats, Etc., By An Ice ...
Placing The Concrete
Placing The Concrete. After Mixing, The Concrete Is Con Veyed In Wheelbarrows Or In Buckets Swung From A Crane Or In Cars Run Ning On A Track, And Deposited In The Structure In Layers 6 To 8 Inches Thick If The Concrete Is Mixed Dry, And From 12 To 16 ...
Placing The Reinforcement
Placing The Reinforcement. There Is Always More Or Less Difficulty And Uncertainty In Properly Placing The Reinforcement For Beams And Slabs When It Consists Of Separate Rods. Sometimes The Steel Is Supported By Chairs Resting On The Bottom Of The Forms And Sometimes It Is Suspended By Wires Attached To ...
Plain Concrete
Plain Concrete Concrete Consists Of Mortar In Which Are Embedded Pebbles Or Pieces Of Stone, Broken Brick, Etc. At Present The Mortar Used In Making Concrete Is Invariably Cement, Although In Ancient Times Lime Was So Used. Of Course, Common Lime Is Wholly Unfit For Use In Large Masses Of ...
Plan 07 Proposed Discussion
Plan 07 Proposed Discussion. In A General Way, Soils May Be Divided Into Three Classes: (1) Ordinary Soils, Or Those Which Are Capable, Either In Their Normal Condition Or After That Condition Has Been Modified By Artificial Means, Of Sustaining The Load That Is To Be Brought Upon Them; (2) ...
Plane
Plane Subreaam. In Squaring Up A Rough Stone, The First Thing The Stone-cutter Does Is To Draw A Line, With Iron Ore Or Black Lead, On The Edges Of The Stone, To Indicate As Nearly As Possible The Required Plane Surface. Then With The Hammer And The Pitching Tool He ...
Pneiimatio Foundations For Buildings
Pneiimatio Foundations For Buildings. The Pneu Matic Process Was Devised For Laying Foundations Of Bridges Under Considerable Depths Of Water Or Water-bearing Soil, And For A Number Of Years Was Used Exclusively For That Purpose And In Tunneling; But Since 1894 The Pneumatic Process Has Been Used Extensively In Laying ...
Pneumatic Caissons
Pneumatic Caissons. A Pneumatic Caisson Is An Immense Box—open Below, But Air-tight And Water-tight Elsewhere,—upon The Top Of Which The Masonry Pier Is Built. The Essential Difference Between The Penumatic Pile And The Pneumatic Caisson Is One Of Degree Rather Than One Of Quality. Sometimes The Caisson Envelops The Entire ...
Pneumatic Piles
Pneumatic Piles. Pneumatic Piles Were Once Consider Ably Used For Bridge Piers, But Have Now Been Superseded For That Purpose By Pneumatic Caissons. Since 1894 The Compressed-air Process Has Been Frequently Employed In Constructing Foundations For Tall Buildings On Manhattan Island, New York City, And In Some Cases The Pneumatic ...
Pneumatic Process
Pneumatic Process. The Principle Involved Is The Utilization Of The Difference Between The Pressure Of The Air Inside And Outside Of An Air-tight Chamber. The Air-tight Chamber May Be Either A Pneumatic Pile— An Iron Cylinder Which Becomes At Once Foundation And Pier,—or A Pneumatic Caisson—a Box, Open Below And ...
Portland Cement 17
Portland Cement. 17. Definition. This Term Is Applied To The Finely Pulverised Product Resulting From The Calcination To Incipient Fusion Of An Intimate Mixture Of Properly Pro Portioned Argillaceous And Calcareous Materials, And To Which No Addition Greater Than 3 Per Cent Has Been Made Subsequent To Calcination. 18. Specific ...
Portland Ozmlt
Portland Ozml!t. Portland Cement Is Produced By Cal Cining A Mixture Containing From 75 To 80 Per Cent Of Carbonate Of Lime And 20 To 23 Per Cent Of Clay, At Such A High Temperature That The Silica And Alumina Of The Clay Combines With The Lime Of The Limestone. ...
Pozzolan
Pozzolan. Pozzolan Is A Term Applied To A Combination Of Silica And Alumina Which, When Mixed With Common Lime And Made Into Mortar, Has The Property Of Hardening Under Water. There Are Several Classes Of Materials Possessing This Property. Pozzolan Proper Is A Material Of Volcanic Origin, And Is The ...
Proportioning Thz Mortar
Proportioning Thz Mortar. Lime Mortar Consists Of A Mixture Of Lime Paste And Sand. The Requisites For Good Sand For Mortar Making Have Been Considered In Art. 1, Chapter V. There Are Four Reasons For Adding Sand To The Lime Paste: (1) To Divide The Paste Into Thin Films And ...
Quantities For A Yard
Quantities For A Yard Of Mortar. Table 22, Page 120, Shows The Approximate Quantities Of Cement And Sand Required For A Cubic Yard Of Mortar By The Three Methods Of Proportioning Described In 4 240. The Table Is Based Upon Actual Tests Made By Carefully Mixing One Half Cubic Foot ...
Rate Of Sinking
Rate Of Sinking. The Work In The Caisson Usually Con Tinues Day And Night, Winter And Summer. The Rate Of Progress Varies, Of Course, With The Size Of The Caisson, The Rapidity With Which The Masonry Can Be Placed, The Kind Of Soil, And Particularly With The Number Of Bowlders ...
Rational
Rational Tencoay. The Following Method Of Determining The Line Of Resistance Is Based Upon The Hypothesis Of Least Crown Thrust (§ 1215), And Recognizes The Existence Of The Horizontal Com Ponents Of The Earth Pressure. Two Forms Of Loading Will Be Con Sidered, Viz.: A Symmetrical And An Unsymmetrical Load. ...
Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced Concrete Reinforced Concrete Is .usually, Though Some What Inaccurately, Defined As A Combination Of Steel And Concrete In Which The Steel Takes The Tension And The Concrete The Compression. For Example, If One Or More Steel Rods Be Imbedded Near The Tension Side Of A Concrete Beam, The Steel ...
Reliability Op Elastic Theory
Reliability Op Elastic Theory. The Chief Sources Of Error In Applying The Elastic Theory To A Plain Concrete Arch Are: 1. The Uncertainty As To The Coefficient Of Elasticity. The Coefficient Varies With The Quality And The Age Of The Concrete, And Also With The Unit Stress; But Not According ...
Relieving Arches
Relieving Arches. In Extreme Cases, The Pressure Of The Earth May Be Sustained By Relieving Arches. These Consist Of A Row Of Arches Having Their Axes And The Faces Of Their Piers At Right Angles To The Face Of A Bank Of Earth. There May Be Either A Single Row ...
Removing The Forms
Removing The Forms. The Length Of Time That Should Be Allowed To Elapse Before Removing The Forms Depends Upon The Weather And The Load To Which The Member Will Be Subjected When The Form Is Removed. With Reference To The Effect Of The Weather It Should Not Be For Gotten ...
Requisites For Good Building
Requisites For Good Building Stone. The Qualities Which Are Most Important In Stone Used For Construction Are Cheapness, Durability, Strength, And Beauty. The Relative Importance Of These Different Qualities Varies Greatly With The Nature Of The Structure And With The Personal Opinion Of The Engineer Or Architect. The Factor Which ...
Requisites Of Good Gravel
Requisites Of Good Gravel. To Be Suitable For Use In Ma King Concrete, Gravel Should Have The Following Characteristics: (1) It Should Be Composed Of Durable Minerals; (2) It Should Be At Least Reasonably Clean; And (3) It Should Have Such A Variety Of Sizes As To Give A Small ...
Rubble Masonry
Rubble Masonry. This Is The Lowest Grade Of Masonry Laid With Mortar. Rubble Is Built Of Unsquared Stones, That Is, Of Stones As They Come From The Quarry Without Other Preparation Than The Removal Of Very Acute Angles And Excessive Projections From The General Figure. The Only Classes Of Rubble ...
Sand
Sand. Sand Is Mixed With Lime Or Cement To Reduce The Cost Of The Mortar; And Is Added To Lime Also To Prevent The Cracking Which Would Occur If Lime Were Used Alone. Any Material May Be Used To Dilute The Mortar, Provided It Has No Effect Upon The Durability ...
Sand Lime Brick
Sand-lime Brick. Sand-lime Brick Consist Of A Mass Of Sand Cemented Together With Lime. There Are Two Classes Of Sand-lime Brick: One In Which The Binding Material Is Carbonate Of Lime, And The Other In Which The Binding Material Is Silicate Of Lime. The First Is Virtually A Brick Made ...
Sawing Off The Piles
Sawing Off The Piles. When Piles Are Driven, It Is Generally Necessary To Saw Them Off Either To Bring Them To The Same Height, Or To Get The Tops Lower Than They Can Be Driven, Or To Secure Sound Wood Upon Which To Rest The Timber Platform That Carries The ...
Selecting A Sand
Selecting A Sand. Natural Sands Differ Greatly In Fineness, In The Per Cent Of Voids, In Cleanness, And Consequently In Their Effect Upon The Strength And Quality Of The Mortar In Which They Are Used. Therefore, Before Commencing Any Considerable Work All Available Natural Sands And All Possible Substitutes Should ...
Separately Moulded Members
Separately Moulded Members. The Usual Method Of Constructing Reinforced Concrete Buildings By Moulding In Place Is Expensive On Account Of The Cost Of The Forms, And Is Also Compara Tively Slow On Account Of The Time That Must Be Allowed For The Concrete To Harden. To Overcome This Objection Buildings ...
Sew Due To
Sew Due To Sædrtising Or Arch Ring. In Deter Mining The Preceding Stresses, The Only Effect Of The Tangential Com Ponent Considered Was That Of A Force T Uniformly Distributed Over The Cross Section, Which Force Produced A Shortening Of The Arch Ring, And Being Uniformly Distributed Over The Cross ...
Shearing Strength
Shearing Strength. Only Occasionally Is A Stone Used In Such A Position That Its Shearing Strength Is Of Any Moment; But Sometimes The Shearing Strength Is Important, For Example, In A Lintel Or In A Corbel. Not Many Experiments Have Been Made On The Shearing Strength Of Stone, Partly Because ...
Slaking Tko Lime
Slaking Tko Lime. Many Persons Seem To Believe That The Slaking Of Lime Is Such A Simple Process That Any One Can Do It; But A Little Care And Attention To The Principles Involved May Materially Increase The Amount Of Paste Obtained, And Hence Decrease The Amount Of Lime Required. ...
Solid Vs Hollow Dams
Solid Vs. Hollow Dams. The Preceding Discussion Relates Solely To A Solid Dam, In Which For Economy The Cross Section Is As Narrow As Consistent With Stability, And The Batter Of The Up-stream Face Is Relatively Quite Small. In This Form Of Dam, The Horizontal Thrust Of The Water Is ...
Specifications For Cement
Specifications For Cement The Following Are The Standard Specifications Of The American Society For Testing Materials,* And Have Been Approved By The American Railway Engineering And Maintenance Of Way Associa Tion, And By The American Society Of Civil Engineers. The Headings And The Numbering Of The Paragraphs Are As In ...
Specifications For Portland Cement Concrete
Specifications For Portland-cement Concrete 1. Cement. The Cement Shall Be Portland, Either American Or Foreign, Which Will Meet The Requirements Of The Standard Specifications Adopted By The American Society For Testing Materials. [see Appendix I.] S. Sand. The Sand Shall Be Clean, Sharp, Coarse, And Of Grains Varying In Size. ...
Specifications For Railway Masonry
Specifications For Railway Masonry The Following Are The Standard Specifications Of The American Railway Engineering And Maintenance Of Way Association:* 1. Engineer. Where The Term Engineer Is Used In These Specifications, It Refers To The Engineer Actually In Charge Of The Work. S. Cement. The Cement Shall Conform To The ...
Speoifioations For Brick Masonry
Speoifioations For Brick Masonry. For Buildings. There Is Not Even A Remote Approach To Uniformity In The Specifica Tions For The Brick-work Of Buildings. Ordinarily The Specifications For The Brick Masonry Are Very Brief And Incomplete. The Following Conform Closely To Ordinary Construction. Of Course, A Higher Grade Of Workmanship ...
Spread Footings
Spread Footings. The Term Footing Is Usually Under Stood As Meaning The Bottom Course Or Courses' Of Masonry Which Extend Beyond The Faces Of The Wall. It Will Be Used Here As Applying To The Material—whether Masonry, Timber, Or Iron—employed To Increase The Area Of The Base Of The Foundation. ...
Squared Stone Masonry
Squared-stone Masonry. This Is Masonry In Which The Joints Are More Than One Half Inch Thick And Less Than About One Inch ($ 552). Squared-stone Masonry May Be Classified According To The Finish Of The Face As Either Quarry-faced Or Pitch-faced, And According To The Arrangement Of The Courses As ...
Stability Against Crushing
Stability Against Crushing. The Preceding Discussion Of The Stability Against Overturning Is On The Assumption That The Masonry Does Not Crush. This Method Of Failure Will Now Be Con Sidered. When The Reservoir Is Full, The Thrust Of The Water Concen Trates The Pressure Upon The Down-stream Edge Of A ...
Stability Against Overturning
Stability Against Overturning. The Horizontal Pres Sure Of The Water Tends To Tip The Wall Forward About The Front Of Any Joint, And Is Resisted By The Moment Of The Weight Of The Wall. For The Present, It Will Be Assumed That The Wall Rests Upon A Rigid Base, And ...
Stability Against Sliding
Stability Against Sliding. The Horizontal Pressure Of The Water Tends To Slide The Dam Forward, And Is Resisted By The Friction Due To The Weight Of The Wall. For A Discussion Of A Closely Related Phase Of This Subject, See Condition For Equilibrium. In Order That The Wall May Not ...
Stability Of Reinforoed Concrete Retaining
Stability Of Reinforoed-concrete Retaining Wall. The Preceding Empirical Rules For The Thickness Of A Retaining Wall Are Applicable Primarily To Stone-block Masonry, And Could Be Safely Used For Plain-concrete Retaining Walls; But Are Not Applicable To Reinforced-concrete Walls, And There Has Not Yet Been Sufficient Ex Perience With This Form ...
Stone Cutting
Stone Cutting In Order To Describe Intelligibly The Various Methods Of Preparing Stones For Use In Masonry, It Will Be Necessary To Begin With A Description Of The Tools Used In Stone Cutting, As The Names Of Many Kinds Of Dressed Stones Are Directly Derived From Those Of The Tools ...
Strength Plain Concretecolumns
Strength Plain Concrete Columns. Table 45, Page 244, Gives The Strength Of Plain Concrete Columns, And Is Here Included To Permit Subsequent Comparisons. Notice That The Richer Mixtures Give Considerably Higher Strength. Fig. 30 Shows The Relation Be Tween The Strength And The Proportion Of Cement, The Amount Of Cement ...
Strength Of
Strength Of Pip Culverts. The Data In The Preceding Section Seem To Show That The Breaking Load Of The Cast-iron Pipe Is The Equivalent Of The Pressure Of A Bank Of Earth 130 Feet High, And Of The Reinforced Concrete Pipe Is The Equivalent Of A Bank 70 Feet High; ...
Strength Of Mortar
Strength Of Mortar. The Strength Of Mortar Is Dependent Upon The Strength Of The Cementing Material, Upon The Composition, Fineness, Etc., Of The Sand, And Upon The Adhesion Of The Former To The Latter. The Kind And Amount Of Strength Required Of Mortar Depends Upon The Kind And Purpose Of ...
Strength Of Plain Concrete
Strength Of Plain Concrete Beam. Fig. 25 Shows A Characteristic Stress-deformation Diagram For Concrete, Obtained By Testing Specimens In Direct Tension And In Direct Compression. Notice In Fig. 25 That A Stress Equal To Three Fourths Of The Compressive Strength Of The Concrete Gives Only One Half As Much Deformation ...
Strength Of Stone Masonry
Strength Of Stone Masonry. The Results Obtained By Testing Small Specimens Of Stone (see § 16) Are Useful In Determining The Relative Strength Of Different Kinds Of Stone, But Are Of No Value In Determining The Ultimate Strength Of The Same Stone When Built Into A Masonry Structure. The Strength ...
Stresses
Stresses Due To Dead And Live Loads. In Fig. 234, Let Gj Represent A Portion Of The Arch, Ab The Neutral Line, And Ce The Side Of The True Equilibrium Polygon To The Left Of The Point A, Ac The Vertical Intercept Between The Neutral Line And The Equilibrium Polygon, ...
Supporting Power Or
Supporting Power Or Sonzw And Dish Pies. The Sup Porting Power Depends Upon The Nature Of The Soil And The Depth To Which The Pile Is Sunk. A Screw Pile "in Soft Mud Above Clay And Sand" Supported 1.8 Tons Per Sq. Ft. Of Blade.* A Disk Pile In "quick ...
Systems Of Reinforced Concrete
_____ Systems Of Reinforced Concrete Arch Construction. There Are A Great Variety Of Methods Of Reinforcing A Concrete Arch, Most Of Which Are Patented. A Few Of The Better Known Will Be Briefly Described, In Chronological Order. Monier Arch. Mr. Jean Monier Of Paris, France, In 1875, Built The First ...
Tensile Strznoth
Tensile Strznoth. This Is The Most Important Of The Tests For Cement, And In A Degree It Includes Most Of The Other Tests. The Strength Of Cement Mortar Is Usually Determined By Submitting A Specimen Having A Cross Section Of 1 Square Inch To A Tensile Stress. The Reason For ...
Tests For Brick
Tests For Brick. The Tests Usually Applied To Determine The Quality Of Brick Are Those For: (1) Form, (2) Texture, (3) Absorptive Power, (4) Crushing Strength, (5) Transverse Strength. Brick Are So Common, And The Requisites For Good Building Brick Are So Obvious, And It Is So Easy To Determine ...
The Bed Of The
The Bed Of The Foundation. The Nature Of The Soil To Be Built Upon Is Evidently The First Subject For Consideration, And If It Has Not Already Been Revealed To A Considerable Depth, By Excavations For Buildings, Wells, Etc., It Will Be Necessary To Make An Examination Of The Subsoil ...
The Materials
The Materials. The Cement Has Been Fully Described In Chapter Iv. The Sand Is Considered In Art. 1 Of Chapter V. When Concrete Is Considered As Mortar With Pieces Of Hard Material Embedded In It, The Mortar Is Called The Matrix And The Coarse Material The Aggregate; But Sometimes Con ...
The Mortar
The Mortar. The Functions Of The Mortar Are: (1) To Form A Cushion To Take Up Any Inequalities In The Brick And Thus Distribute The Pressure Evenly; (2) To Bind The Whole Wall Into One Solid Mass; And (3) To Fill The Interstices Between The Brick To Keep Out Water ...