Archaeology.—In spite of the importance of the Creswell caves in Derbyshire for Palaeolithic remains, Yorkshire has very little to show until the end of that stage, and remains which be long typologically to this period may actually date from a con siderably later period. In this connection we note objects from the Victoria cave, Settle, and from Holderness. Petch has made special studies of the pigmy flints of south Yorkshire and has found large numbers of sites all above the ',coo ft. contour line. (See J. A. Petch, Early Man in the District of Huddersfield [Huddersfield, 1924].) Implements of Late Neolithic type are found almost all over the county, and such implements, made of finely chipped flints, are especially characteristic of the district behind Scarborough and the Yorkshire Wolds, which henceforth stands out as an especially important region in prehistoric times. The Yorkshire Wolds are one of the chief regions of Britain for round barrows and Beaker pottery, while remains of the Bronze age abound both here and in the Aire gap. The north Yorkshire moors are in process of detailed study by Elgee. On the moors above Ilkley are interesting traces of an apparently megalithic culture, with large stones decorated with cup and ring markings, supposed swastikas, etc. Three decorated chalk drums from Folkton Wold are important, showing southern and probably Iberian influence. Jet ornaments are another feature. The rarity of Bronze age finds in the central Ouse basin is a noteworthy feature. The Yorkshire Wolds yield abundant evidences of early Iron age finds, and important settlements have been located near Arras and Hessleskar farms, 3 m. E. of Market Weighton. The finds in these regions show affinities with those of the period on the English plain and in north-eastern Gaul.
History.—By Roman times the Vale of York had become important and carried the north road. From Lindum (Lincoln) the main road ran north-west to Danum (Doncaster) and thence to Legiolium and Calcaria (Tadcaster), thence branching off to Eburacum (York, q.v.), the Roman capital of the north. The main road continued through the Vale of York from Calcaria past Isurium to Cataractorium (Catterick Bridge) and thence over the Tees to the north.
In the 6th century, an Anglian tribe having seized the promon tory at the mouth of the Humber, named by the invaders Holder ness, gradually subjugated the East Riding. The earliest settle ments were chiefly confined to the rich valley of the lower Der went, but the district around Weighton became the sacred ground of the kingdom which was named Deira, and Goodmanham is said to mark the site of a temple. Ella, the first king of Deira, ex tended his territory north to the Wear, and his son Edwin com pleted the conquest of the district which was to become York shire. Traces of the "burhs" by which Edwin secured his con quests are perhaps visible in the group of earthworks at Barwick and on the site of Cambodunum, but the district long remained scantily populated. The defeat of Edwin at Hatfield in 633 was
followed by a succession of struggles between Mercia and Nor thumbria for the supremacy over Deira. After the Danish conquest of Deira, Guthrum in 875 portioned the district among his f ol lowers, under whose lordship the English retained their lands. Cleveland came under Scandinavian influence, and the division into tithings probably originated about this date, the boundaries being arranged to meet at York, the administrative centre which, by A.D. moo, had a population of over 30,000. At the battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 Harold Hardrada, who had seized York, and Earl Tosti were defeated and slain by Harold of England.
For many years after the harrying of the country by the Con queror all the towns between York and Durham lay uninhabited. In 1138 David of Scotland was defeated near Northallerton in the battle of the Standard. In the barons' wars of the reign of Henry II. Thirsk and Malgeard castles were captured and demolished. Robert Bruce in 1318 destroyed Northallerton, Boroughbridge, Scarborough and Skipton. In 1322 at the battle of Boroughbridge, the rebel barons were defeated by the forces of Edward II. In 1399 Richard II. was murdered in Pontefract castle. In 1408 the rebel forces of the earl of Northumberland were defeated at Bramham moor near Tadcaster. In 1453 a skirmish at Stamford Bridge was the opening event in the struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster; in 146o the duke of York was defeated and slain at Wakefield; in 1461 the Lancas trians were defeated at Towton. The suppression of the monas teries roused deep resentment in Yorkshire, and the inhabitants flocked to join the Pilgrimage of Grace. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, opinion was divided in Yorkshire. Sir William Savile captured Leeds and Wakefield for the king in 1642, and in 1643 Newcastle, having defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton moor, held all Yorkshire except Hull. In 1644, how ever, the Fairfaxes secured the East and West Ridings, while Cromwell's victory at Marston moor was followed by the capture of York, and in the next year of Pontefract and Scarborough.
On the redistribution of estates after the Norman Conquest, Alan of Brittany, founder of Richmond castle, received the honour of Richmond, and Ilbert de Laci the honour of Pontefract. Earl Harold's estate at Coningsburgh passed to William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, together with Sandal castle, which in the 14th century was bestowed on Edmund Langley, duke of York. Other Domesday landholders were William de Percy, founder of the abbey of Whitby; Robert de Bruce, ancestor of the royal line in Scotland ; Roger de Busli; the archbishop of York enjoyed the great lordship of Sherburn, and Howdenshire was a liberty of the bishop of Durham.