The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned upon the establishment or institution system, as opposed to that of the "family" or "boarding out" systems adopted in some countries, and some controversy has been aroused as to the comparative value of the methods. The British practice has always favoured the well-governed school, with the proviso that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his charges. But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by dividing the boys into "houses," each containing a small manageable total as a family under an official father or head. Under this system the idea of the home is maintained, while uniformity of treatment and discipline is secured by grouping several houses together under one general authority. The plan of "boarding out" is now being adopted very largely in the case of young children, who although technically "committed" to a particular school are in reality boarded out by the school authorities and remain under their control, becoming inmates of the school on attaining the age of 1 o years. The value of the domestic training is questionable and of uncertain quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of the foster parents secured. Education must be less systematic in the private home, industrial training is less easily carried out, and there can be none of that esprit de corps that stimulates effort in physical training as applied to athletics and the playing of games.
Under careful management and the wise inspection and super vision of the Home office, the "certified schools," both Reform atory and Industrial, have attained a very high degree of efficiency.
Punishments in them have greatly decreased and a much larger measure of freedom and self-development has been secured. In nearly all schools the boys or girls go into "camp" for a summer holiday and, where conditions render it possible, also have a short holiday with parents or relations. The standard of education has been raised and the technical instruction has become really valu able in after life.
Inmates of certified schools remain after discharge under the control of the authorities; in the case of the senior schools until 19, in that of the junior until 18 years of age. This system enables the managers to give every boy and girl on leaving a good start in life in a carefully selected occupation. So efficient has it now become that some schools are able to claim 95% of successes for those discharged under control.
Certain schools specialize in nautical training, others in farm work, but nearly every trade and occupation is open to choice, the Army receiving a very large number. Exact figures are given in the Home office reports.
Belgium has inaugurated an experiment of great interest in the establishment of "observation schools" at Molle for boys and at Namur for girls. The period of residence lasts for about three months and during this time every characteristic of the child, physical, mental, psychological and vocational, is carefully studied, so that the Court having cognizance of the particular case may be fully advised as to the best method of treatment.
Holland has not only followed Belgium in this respect but has instituted a system of special police for the control and care of children and most countries have now established Children's Courts.
The "George Junior Republic" (q.v.) is a remarkable institu tion established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New York State, by Mr. William Reuben George. The original features of the institution are that the motto "Nothing without labour" is rigidly enforced, and that self-government is carried to a point that, with mere children, would appear whimsical were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name implies, a miniature
"republic" with laws, legislature, courts and administration of its own, all made and carried on by the "citizens" themselves. The tone and spirit of the place appeared to be excellent and there is much evidence that in many cases strong and independent charac ter is developed in children whose antecedents have been almost hopeless.
Some time back the experiment of establishing a penal reforma tory for offenders above the age hitherto committed to reformatory schools was resolved upon. This led to the foundation of the Borstal scheme, which was first formally started in October 1902 (see BORSTAL SYSTEM). (X.) United States.—It is only within the century that the notion of a differentiated treatment of the youthful offender led to the establishment of separate correctional institutions for juvenile offenders under 16 years of age. The first of these houses of refuge, as they were called, was set up in the City of New York in 1825. Under the general description of reform schools, in stitutions of this type multiplied in the United States, some under public and some under private, religious or other benevolent auspices. These have for the most part been prisons in all but name and have done little to reform the young delinquents com mitted to their custody, but the last 20 years have marked a considerable improvement in the spirit and methods of their ad ministration. The more recent tendency is to locate them in the country and to house the inmates in cottages holding from 20 to 4o each, under the immediate supervision of a house-father and mother. In this new phase of their development these institutions are commonly known as State, city or county homes or industrial schools. There are to-day (1928) 145 such institutions in the United States wholly or in part supported out of the public funds.
Commitments are made by the juvenile courts and are for an indeterminate period in the discretion of the management of the school. The boy or girl committed may be held until he or she attains the age of 21, but the usual period of residence does not exceed three years. Release is conditional on parole, subject to supervision by the parole officer of the institution who may return the delinquent for any subsequent misconduct.
As an escape from the prison there can be no doubt of the value of the reform school; but it is open to the question whether it is anything better than a makeshift—a question which raises the issue of the balance of the benefits and the detrimental effects of institutional treatment. Students of the problem in America are looking hopefully to other social agencies—probation, boys' and girls' clubs and, for the younger delinquents, foster homes—as more promising means of dealing effectively with the problem. The juvenile court is still in a state of transition; equipped with the psychiatric clinic and its staff of probation officers, it is feel ing its way. It will be remembered that the juvenile court has ridded itself of the criminal law—its punitive aims, inflexible procedure and tradition of finality, replaced by a court of chancery with no aim but the protection of the child and with a procedure which is not exhausted until that end has been attained. It is from the juvenile court, therefore, rather than from houses of refuge and reformatories, that a solution of the problem of the juvenile offender is to be expected. (See CHILDREN'S COURTS; REFORMATORY SCHOOL ; PRISON.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Dr. W. Healy, The Individual Delinquent (1915) ; W. Healy and A. F. Bronner, Delinquents and Criminals; Their Making and Unmaking (1926). (G. W. KO