It is in the United States that the Kindergarten has had its fullest development. The first Kindergartens were established in Boston, New York, Milwaukee, Chicago and St. Louis in the early '7os; and these, with the demonstration Kindergarten at the Philadelphia Exposition in 1876 gave the American people the opportunity to judge of its merits. Within the next decade Kindergartens had been established in all the large cities of the country. These early Kindergartens were all private or supported by organizations. As they proved their merit they were gradually adopted by the schools of their communities. This could not be done, however, without the enactment of a law in the State in question permitting the use of public school funds for the edu cation of children of Kindergarten age. The first States to enact such laws—Connecticut, Indiana and Vermont—did so during the '8os. These laws made it possible to organize Kindergarten train ing courses in the State-supported teacher's training institutions. The first States to offer such courses were Minnesota, Connecticut, Kansas and New York.
The adoption of the Kindergarten by the school was an advan tage to both. The housing and equipment which the school afforded was better than that which the isolated Kindergartens could provide, and the teachers were better trained. The Kinder garten shared with the grades such other advantages as the services of health experts and other specialists. It in turn contributed new ideals and types of work, and a better attitude toward children than the school had shown. The most important result of the combination was the change brought about in the Kinder garten play material and methods. The period was one of em phasis on health, and the health experts pointed out the injury to children's eyes and nerves caused by the smallness of the materials. They also pointed out weaknesses in the methods used. These and other criticisms were taken seriously by the teachers and school authorities and a programme of improvement in materials and methods was inaugurated. As a result all the materials were enlarged by 1900. These materials gave the children much satis faction. The size of the blocks led to their use on the floor by small groups, and the working out of little group projects. For this, however, still larger blocks and a variety of forms were felt to be needed. This need was met by sets of patented building blocks, and others involving similar features worked out in different cities. Such blocks are based wholly on children's needs, and have no relation to the Froebelian series of "gifts and occupations." The gradual changes in the Kindergarten materials have been accompanied by corresponding changes in the methods of using them, all the changes being such as to contribute to the children's health and development. The best methods of using the materials
have not all been worked out, but these problems are being given much thought. As a whole, the Kindergarten is doing better work and is held in higher esteem than ever before. (N. C. V.) The movement towards freedom in America has had its counter part in England, and emphasis is nowadays laid by the followers of Froebel in England on the choice and variety of material and on detailed study of the individual both by educational toys and by careful observation of the effect of giving children freedom to develop. The influences, however, of the doctrines of Froebel have during the last 5o years gradually extended far beyond the Kindergarten proper. They have profoundly affected the educa tion of young children in all countries modifying existing practices in infant schools and combining with newer influences to create other schools of a fresh and thoroughly modern type. (See NURSERY SCHOOLS.) The term is loosely used to-day in England and elsewhere either of method, when speaking of the in fant school, or as descriptive of the preliminary classes attached to the preparatory department of the ordinary secondary school.
In Austria the Kindergarten is recognized and regulated by the Government, though the Volks-Kindergarten are not numerous. In Belgium the mistresses of the Ecoles Gardiennes are instructed in the "idea of the kindergarten" and "Froebel's method," and in 188o the minister of public instruction issued a programme for the Ecoles Gardiennes Communales, which is both in fact and profession a kindergarten manual. (See NURSERY SCHOOLS.) (M. G. O.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Nina C. Vandewalker, The Kindergarten in Ameri can Education (1908) ; E. R. Murray, Frobel as a Pioneer in Modern Psychology (1914) ; William Heard Kilpatrick, Froebel's Kindergarten Principles Critically Examined (1916) ; E. R. Murray and H. Brown Smith, The Child under Eight (1920) ; Arnold Lucas Gesell, The Pre school Child (1923) ; Agnes Burke and others, A Conduct Curriculum for the Kindergarten and First Grade (1923) ; Lorle I. Baldwin, Bird and Stecher, The Psychology of the Pre-school Child (1924) ; Educa tion by Life, a discussion of the problem of the school education of younger children ed. by H. Brown Smith (1925) ; Charlotte G. Garri son, Permanent Play Material for Young Children (1926) ; Teachers' College, Columbia University, Experimental Studies in Kindergarten Education (Vol. XV., No. I.).