Knighthood

The Order of Knights of Alcantara, instituted about 1156 by the brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for pro tection against the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order of knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until about 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro; but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they took their name from that city. For a considerable time they were in some degree subject to the grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava. Ultimately, however, they asserted their independence by electing a grand master of their own. During the rule of 37 successive grand masters, simi larly chosen, the influence and wealth of the order gradually in creased until the Knights of Alcantara were almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-95 Juan de Zuniga was prevailed upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, who thereupon vested it in his own person as king; and this arrangement was ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. In 154o Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth obedientia, castitas conjugalis and conversio morum. In modern times the history of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in 18o8, he deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in The Order of Knights of Calatrava was founded in 1158 by Don Sancho III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexan der III. granted confirmation as a religious military order under Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the Moors and the order removed to the castle of Salvatierra, but recovered their town in 1212. In 1489 Ferdinand seized the grand mastership, and it was finally vested in the crown of Spain in 1523. The order became a military order of merit in 18°8 and was reorganized in 1874. The Royal and Illustrious Order of Charles III. was founded in 1771 by Charles III. ; it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with all the Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the Royal Order of the Knights of Spain was established. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. revived the order. The Order of Isabella the Catholic was founded in 1815 under the patronage of St. Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; origi nally instituted to reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish pos sessions in America, it is now a general order of merit. Other Spanish orders are the Maria Louisa, 1792, for noble ladies; the military and naval orders of merit of St. Ferdinand, founded by the Cortes in 18ii; of St. Ermenegild (Hermenegildo), 1814; of Military Merit and Naval Merit, 1866, and of Maria Christina, 189o; the Order of Beneficencia for civil merit, 1856; that of Alfonso Xi/. for merit in science, literature and art, 1902, and the Civil Order of Alfonso XII., 1902.

Sweden.

The Order of the Seraphim (the "Blue Ribbon"). Tradition attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knighthood to Magnus I. in 128o; more certainty attaches to the fact that the order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order dates from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I. Exclusive of the sovereign and the princes of the blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and eight foreign members. The

native members must be already members of the Order of the Sword or the Pole Star. There is a prelate of the order which is administered by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in the Riddar Holmskyrka at Stockholm. The collar is formed of alter nate gold seraphim and blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. The motto is Jesus Hominum Salvator. The Order of the Sword (the "Yellow Ribbon"), the principal Swedish military order, was founded, it is said, by Gustavus I. Vasa in 1522, and was re established by Frederick I., with the Seraphim and the Pole Star in 1748. The Order of the Pole Star (Polar Star, North Star, the "Black Ribbon"), was founded in 1748 for civil merit. The Order of Vasa (the "Green Ribbon"), was founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for services rendered to the national industries and manufactures. The Order of Charles XIII., founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. It is thus quite unique.

Turkey.

The Nischan-i-1mtiaz, or Order of Privilege, was founded by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one class ; the Nischan-el-Iftikhar, or Order of Glory, also one class, founded 1831 by Mahmoud II. ; the Nischan-i-Mejidi, the Mejidieh, was founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul Medjid. The Nischan-i-Osmanie, the Osmanieh, for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862. The Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence, was instituted for ladies in 1878 by the sultan in honour of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877. There was also the family order, for Turkish princes, the Hanedani-Ali-Osman, founded in 1893, and the Ertogroul, in 19o3.

Yugoslavia.

The Order of the White Eagle, the principal order, was founded by Milan I. in 1882 ; the ribbon is blue and red; the Order of St. Sava, founded 1883, is an order of merit for science and art ; the Order of the Star of Karageorgevitch, was founded by Peter I. in 1904. The orders of Milosch the Great, founded by Alexander I. in 1898 and of Takovo, founded origi nally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1863, reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 no longer bestowed. The Order of St. Lazarus is not a general order, the cross and collar being only worn by the king.

Estonia has established the Liberty Cross; Finland the White Rose of Finland; Latvia the Order of the Three Stars.

Non-European Orders.

Of the various States of Central and South America, Nicaragua has the American Order of San Juan or Grey Town, founded in 1857; and Venezuela that of the Bust of Bolivar, 1854. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the Mexican Eagle, 1865, and Our Lady of Guadalupe, 1853 ; as has Brazil those of the Southern Cross, 1822, Dom Pedro I., 1826, the Rose, 1829, and the Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of Christ, St. Benedict of Aviz and St. James. The republi can Order of Columbus, founded in 189o, was abolished in 1891.

China.—There were no orders for natives, and such distinc tions as were conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins, the grades indicated by the number of peacock's feath ers, the gift of the yellow jacket and the like, were rather insignia of rank or personal marks of honour than orders in the European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in 1882 established the sole order, that of the Imperial Double Dragon. The recipients eligible for the various classes were graded, from the first grade of the first class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants and manufacturers.