Though a great figure in Asiatic history, Kublai misses a record in the short list of the good rulers. He was the first of his race to rise above the innate barbarism of the Mongols, and he re tained the force and warlike character of his ancestors. He had great intelligence and a keen desire for knowledge, with apparently a good deal of natural benevolence and magnanimity. But his love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions beyond sea, created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes to the character and methods of his agents. A remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one of these, Ahmed of Fenaket, and of the revolt which they provoked, is given by Marco Polo, in sub stantial accordance with the Chinese annals.
Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally. The great astronomical instruments which he caused to be made were long preserved at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin in 1900. Though he put hardly any Chinese into the first ranks of his administration, he attached many to his confidence, and was personally popular among them. He made efforts to procure European priests for the instruction of his people, of which we know through Marco Polo (q.v.). Failing this momentary effort, Kublai probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan Buddhism the readiest instrument in the civilization of his countrymen, and that system received his special countenance. Early in his reign he appointed a young lama of intelligence and learning, Mati Dhwaja, the head of the Lamaite Church, and eventually also prince of Tibet. This ecclesiastic was employed by Kublai to devise a special alphabet for use with the Mongol language. It was chiefly based on Tibetan forms of Nagari ; some coins and inscriptions in it are extant ; but it soon perished. Of the splendour of his court and entertainments, of his palaces, sum mer and winter, of his great hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an account is given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many years in Kublai's service.
His foreign expeditions were almost all disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering for the nominal extension of his empire by claiming submission and tribute. Expeditions against Japan were several times repeated; the last, in 1281, on an immense scale, met with huge discomfiture. Kublai's prepara tions to avenge it were abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they created. In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa (Cochin China). An attempt to invade the country through Tongking led to a war with that state, in which the Mongols had much the worst of it. A war with Burma (or Mien, as the Chinese called it) was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The country was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital, Pagan, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against Java, and occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign. The envoy whom he had commissioned to claim homage was sent back with ignominy. A great armament was equipped in the ports of Fukien to avenge this insult ; but after some temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with a loss of 3,00o men. The death of Kublai prevented further action.
Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified the khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with presents, and with the curious reports of foreign countries in which Kublai delighted. Such expeditions extended to the states of southern India, to eastern Africa, and even to Madagascar.
Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite and designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son of Chingkim, took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty after Kublai. He had in all nine successors of his house on the throne of Kaan-baligh, but the long and imbecile reign of the ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in disgrace and expulsion and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their stead.
(H. Y.) See Sir H. Yule, Marco Polo (i875) ; Sir H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols (part i. 1876).