BIBLIoGRApHY.—Publications subsequent to 1900. F. R. Maunsell, Central Kurdistan (19oI) and "The land of Elam," Geogr. J., 1925, LXV. ; Grenard, "Kurdistan et Armenie," La Geographie, 1904, IX.; M. Sykes, Dar ul Islam (19°4) and The Caliph's last heritage (1915) ; B. Dickson, "Journeys in Kurdistan," Geogr. J., 191o, XXXV.; H. Grothe, Wanderungen in Persien (Iwo) ; E. Banse, "Kurdistan ein landerkundlicher Begriff," Petermanns Mitt., 1911, LVII.; E. B. Soane, To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in disguise (1926), and "The southern Kurd," J. Cent. Asian Soc., 1922, IX.; M. Philips Price, "A journey through Azerbaijan and Persian Kurdistan," Persia Soc., 1913, March, and J. Manchr. Geogr. Soc., 1914, XXX. ; E. T. A. and W. A. Wigram, The Cradle of Mankind: Life in Eastern Kurdistan (1922) ; H. Handel-Mazetti, Die vegetations verhaltnisse von Mesopotamien and Kurdistan (Vienna, 1914), and "Zur Geographie von Kurdistan," Petermanns Mitt., 1912, LVIII.; A. I. Iyessa, Journey to the north Persian Kurdistan (1913 ; in Russian) ; Kenneth Mason, "Central Kurdistan," Geogr. J., 1919, LIV.; B. Nikitine, "Les Kurdes racontes par eux-memes,' L'Asie francaise, 1925, May, and "Quelques observa tions sur les Kurdes," Mercure de France, XXXII.; E. S. Stevens, By Tigris and Euphrates (1923) ; W. R. Hay, Two years in Kurdistan. Experiences of a political officer, 1918-20 (1921) ; C. H. D. Ryder, "The Turco-Persian Frontier Commission," Records Survey of India, 1914-15, IX. and "The demarcation of the Turco-Persian boundary in 1913-14," Geogr. J., 1925, LXXI. ; Klolzel, Die Strasse d. Zehntausend mit der Schmude-Expedition nach Persien (Hamburg, 1925).
The origin of the Kurds cannot yet be accurately defined. The oldest Sumerian records leave little doubt that not later than 2,000 B.C. a people named Guth or Kai, later on called Kfirtie by the Assyrians, held the region of middle Tigris from the district of Bohtan roundabout Mount Gildi (perverted into Jebel Judi by the Arabs), across Bezabda (Jezirat .1bn Omar of the Arabs), to the mountains of Kuh-i-Shengar (Jebel Sinjar) in the west and the chains of Zagros in the east. Another group of kindred tribes named Kassites (Kassu) descended into Babylon from the south ern hills of Zagros and governed Babylonia (Akkad) for about six centuries (180a-1200 B.c.). It appears that these original Kurdish tribes, perhaps of pure Aryan stock, were one of the oldest autochthonous people of those mountain regions.
Called Kardu by later Assyrians and pre-Muslim Arabs, Gortlikh by Armenians, and Carduchi (KapboxoN Gordse, Cyrti, etc., in the Greek and Roman classics, the history of the Kurds has consequently been very confused and illusory. There is how ever, little doubt that by a comparative study of the records of Sargon II. and Assarhaddon of Assyria, of Herodotus, of Moses of Chorene (Ar menian) and Persian epic poems some of the great Kurdish tribes, the Bokhtis, the Mukris, the Hadabanis, the Mihranis (Mil lis), the Babans and others, can be identi fied as existing as early as the 6th century B.C. and living the same sort of life as
to-day. They constitute the oldest aris tocracy throughout the world in so far as their tribal names are concerned.
From the dawn of history the Kurdish tribes have scarcely submitted to any em pire or conqueror for long. They fought the Sumerian dynasties, one of which called itself Gutium. The Hittite monarch, Shubbilukuma (137o B.c.), refers to them as Gurda and to their god Gir. As the chief constituent elements of the Nairi confederation they f ought all the great Assyrian monarchs from Salmanasor I.
onwards until they helped Cyaxares and Cyrus to overthrow both Nineveh and Babylon. Viewed from an historical angle, it appears that the Assyrian empire, even at the height of its power, felt secure only in the plain of Nineveh and westwards; whereas the Kurdish tribes in the north, north-east, and on the borders of Elam caused increasing trouble to Assyria by their unvanquished self-assertion. On the downfall of the Median empire, the Kurds seem to have absorbed the remnants of Mede warriors as they absorbed later Assyrians, Armenians and the Turkomans; just in the same way as they have themselves been absorbed by their neighbours. Under Cyrus and Darius, the Kurdish tribes were completely Aryanized and their national characteristics were formed. On a more or less equal footing with the great satraps of Achaemian Persia, they not only supplied troops but they became the privileged guardians of Zoroastrian temples (the Ravandi tribe). They fought the Greeks of Xeno phon on their retreat through Bohtan, as well as the Seleucids who tried to dominate them, and they were prominent under the Sassanians.
Another independent Kurdish kingdom, the Mervan family, ruled at Diarbekr in the first half of the 11th century, succumb ing to the Seljuks. When Salaheddin the Great (Saladin) fought the Crusaders and united most of the Kurdish tribes under his rule in Syria (12th century) Kurdish power was at its height.
When the Mongol Great Khan Mangu sent his brother Hulagu (1252) to conquer Western Asia, he was to suppress those Kurd ish "robbers" of Kurd-i-kuh (Shahrizor) who hampered the free movements of the Mongol armies. The Kurds massacred 20,000 Mongols in 1257 before the castle of Arbil.