The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of more than 6o° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer in vacuo and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded 9o°. . . . The mean annual temperature at Leh is 4o°, that of the coldest months (Jan. and Feb.) only 18° and 19°, but it rises rapidly from Feb. to July, in which month it reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 8o° both in that month and Aug., and an average difference of 29° or 3o° between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below o°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than I Io°. The air is as dry at Quetta, and rather more uniformly so. . . . The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year."' In Jan. and Feb. the air is generally calm, and April and May are the most windy months of the year.
Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted growth of tamarisk and Myricaria, Hippophae and Elaeag nus, furze, and the roots of burtsi, a salsolaceous plant, supply the traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar (Juniperus excelsa), the poplar and willow (both extensively planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being wheat, a beardless variety of barley called grim, millet, buck wheat, pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an um belliferous plant) are used as f odder.
Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two kinds of sheep, of which the larger (huniya) is used for carrying burdens, and is a principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid between the yak and common cow. Among wild animals are the kiang or wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (Pantholops), marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna.
The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing through Ladakh is inconsiderable. Ladakh, however, is im proving in its trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of western Tibet and within a radius of ioo or 200 m. of Leh there centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires scientific development to render it enor mously productive. Here the surface soil has been for many cen turies washed for gold by bands of Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 5o ft., and whose methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for their labour.
The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt southward bend in 45' E., and the mountains to the north and west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. The Balti call Gilgit "a Tibet,"
and Dr. Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethno logical frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Bal tistan is a mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions, 35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose 'H. F. Blandford, Climate and Weather of India (London, 1889).
highest peaks to the south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after receiving the Shyok. The capital, a scattered collection of houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7,25o ft. above the sea. The rapid slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane, spruce and Pinus excelsa appear; the fruits are finer, including pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied.
Early in the i 7th century Ladakh was invaded by its Moham medan neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or king then made a nominal profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mohammedan title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh was, however, conquered and annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu—the unwarlike Ladakhis being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however, brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the Indian force was almost annihilated—chiefly indeed by frost-bite and other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,00o ft. above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier.
See: A. Cunningham, Ladak (1854) ; F. Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir Territories (1875) ; J. Biddulph, The Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh (188o) ; W. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895).