Latin Literature

Yet another side of modern research is an abandonment of the last century's excessive classicism, which turned attention away from such interesting fields as the ecclesiastical writers, the grammarians and glossarists, and the monuments of vulgar Latin.' best general history is by Martin Schanz der romischen Literatur bis zum Gesetzgebungswerk des Kaisers Justinian), in i. v. Miiller's Handbuch der Altertumswissen schaft; new (fourth) edition, revised by Carl Hosius, began to appear in 2927. Mention should also be made of W. S. Teuffel, Geschichte der romischen Literatur (several editions, the last complete one being the 6th, revised by W. Kroll and F. Skutsch, Leipzig, 1910-16 ; vol. 2 has appeared in a 7th ed., Leipzig, 1920. English translation, now out of print, by C. C. Warr, of an older revision by L. Schwabe). In English, short histories by J. W. Mackail (1899), C. T. Cruttwell (292o), M. S. Dimsdale (2925), H. N. Fowler (1923) and J. Wight Duff (2925). Note also a French compendium by L. Laurand, in his Manuel des etudes grecques et latines (1925). (Bib'. in most of the above, especially the first, which see for the very numerous treatises on parts of the subject.) For recent progress in the study, see the classical periodicals (Clas sical Review, Classical Quarterly, Journal of Roman Studies, England; American Journal of Philology, Classical Philology, Classical Journal, U.S.A.) ; these mostly contain accounts also of Continental periodicals. Good reviews of literature in Philologische Wochenschrift (Leipzig, Latin literature which is classed as "mediaeval" is usually ac counted as beginning after the death (A.D. 524) of Boethius, "the last of the Romans," with Cassiodorus of a noble family in the Abruzzi. While still "in the world" he compiled a universal history and a more particular account of the Goths, and, after retiring to the Benedictine monastery of Vibarium in Squil lace (c. 540), a series of theological treatises important because he considered the retention of the secular learning then still ex isting, essential to his fellow monks. His immediate successor in Italy was Pope Gregory the Great (d. 604), the first great Latin writer who knew no Greek ; the mission of St. Augustine of Can terbury to England originated the Latin culture there which was to have a great reflex action in western Europe through Aldhelm at the Carolingian revival.

After Gregory the Great, the lamp of learning in Italy was dim for a time ; we must look to Africa, where the tradition of St. Augustine of Hippo lingered, and to Spain, the home of the Roman gentleman and poet Prudentius. In the former, Vere cundus (d. 552) was an expositor of the Old Testament canticles; Corippus (c. 55o) wrote historical epics on the wars against the Moors; in the latter, St. Martin of Braga (d. 58o) writing on Christian morals and doctrine leads up to the encyclopaedist, St. Isidore of Seville (c. 570-636) whose Chronicle of the World and Etymologies are of magistral authority throughout the middle ages. In Gaul we find the troubador Venantius Fortunatus, whose courtier's trifles in honour of Queen Radegund are redeemed by his magnificent hymns (V exilla regis and Pange lingua) for the f rag ment of the True Cross received at Poitiers in 569, and Gregory of Tours (d. 594) the historian of the Franks.

Latin Culture in the British Isles.

The centre of Latin learning now moves yet further away from Rome. There is some still unexplained connection between the Irish writers and the amusing pedant Virgilius Maro Grammaticus (in the south-west of France, 7th century) ; but apart from this, scholars fled to the peaceful island to escape the wars and invasions that were devas tating Europe; they carried some Greek with them, which was strangely kept alive for centuries. Much of the work of their

successors is in Irish : in Latin we may mention at the beginning of the period the fine, rugged cosmogonical and eschatological poem Altus prosator of St. Columba (d. 597) and at its end Adamnan (642-704), the prose author of a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, a life of Columba, and commentaries on the Georgics and Eclogues of Virgil. For 15o years there is a Latin literary culture in Ireland while Europe is sunk in war and ignorance, though the record of England is only less glorious than that of the sister isle; scholars and writers are fewer, but of almost equal merit. Fastidius (5th century, the writer of a tract on the Chris tian life for widows) is unimportant : in the 6th century Giidas "the Wise" is our authority for the history of the last days of Roman Britain. Later, there is a succession of figures of high literary merit, Aldhelm (64o-7o9), the Venerable Bede and Alcuin (73o-793) : Bede's Ecclesiastical History is a work of first-rate importance, and Alcuin was summoned by Charlemagne to his court to revive that learning in Europe which had almost flickered out.

The Birth of Rhyme.—Before considering the writers of the Carolingian revival brief mention must be made of the poets omitted in this historical sketch. St. Ambrose (c. is before the period ordinarily accounted mediaeval, but his adop tion of a Latin iambic measure and modification of it, perhaps under the influence of Hebrew psalmody and music, set a model for hymnology for i,000 years. He is followed by Sedulius in the 5th century and about this time rhyme begins to appear : first assonance, then time rhyme, monosyllabic only; to the Irish we owe the richer double rhymes found in the rest of the period. At the same time the ancient classical measures were kept in being by such writers as Prudentius in early days and Bede and the Anglo-Saxon poets later on.

Paul the Deacon, the historian of the Lombards, who died towards the end of the 8th century, was at Charlemagne's court, after the emperor had summoned Alcuin to revive learning by the institution of schools in France and Germany : among Alcuin's more famous pupils were Einhart (d. 84o), the biographer of Charlemagne, the Spaniard Theodulf (d. 821), bishop of Orleans and the best poet of his day and Angilbert (d. 814), of less liter ary merit than the two others; also Hrabanus Maurus (784 856), archbishop of Mayence, possibly the author of the Veni creator spiritus, and his pupil Walafrid Strabo (808-849), abbot of Reichenau, a writer in the Virgilian tradition. To this period belong the unfortunate but gifted Godescalc of Orbais (c. 805 869) the monk persecuted by Hincmar of Rheims for his errone ous doctrine of predestination, a tender poet in his short pieces and possibly, under the assumed name of Theodulus, the author of an Eclogue full of classical learning, which was read until the close of the middle ages; and the intriguing figure of Johannes Scotus Erigena, brought in to write against Godescalc's doctrine; an Irishman who knew Greek well, almost alone of his age, and a free thinker and untamed spirit beyond his time.