BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Smeaton, Eddystone Lighthouse (1793) ; A. Fresnel, Memoire sue un nouveau systeme d'eclairage des phares (1822), and Oeuvres completes (1870) ; R. Stevenson, Bell Rock Lighthouse (Edin burgh, 1824) ; Alan Stevenson, Skerryvore Lighthouse (1847) ; Renaud, Memoire sur reclairage et le balisage des cotes de France (1864) ; Allard, Memoire sur l'intensite et la portee des phares (1876), Memoire sur les phares electriques (1881), and Les Phares (1889) ; T. Stevenson, Lighthouse Construction and Illumination (1881) ; Renaud, Les Phares (1881) ; Edwards, Our Sea Marks (5884) ; D. P. Heap, Ancient and Modern Lighthouses (Boston, ; J. Rey, Les Progres d'eclairage des cotes (1898) ; Williams, Life of Sir J. N Douglass (1900) ; J. F. Chance, The Lighthouse Work of Sir Jas. Chance (1902) ; G. de Joly and C. Laroche, Cours des Travaux Mari times, vol. i. (1921) ; C. Ribiere, Phares et Signaux maritimes (1908) ; Cattolica and Luria, Fari e segnali marittimi, 2 vols. (Turin, 1916). The two last named works contain good bibliographies. Exhaustive bibliographic lists are issued periodically (since 1908) by the Inter national Association of Navigation Congresses, Brussels. The Pro ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers; Annales des Ponts et The first lighthouse in America, a tall masonry tower, was built in 1716 by Massachusetts at the entrance to Boston harbour. The original Colonies on the Atlantic, largely dependent on water traffic, gave early attention to lighthouses. Congress, in 1789, immediately after the national government's organization, pro vided for lighthouses and buoys, 12 having been built by the colonial governments. In 1852 Congress established the Light house Board, substituting for it in 1910 the Lighthouse Service. On July I, 1939 the Lighthouse Service was consolidated with the U.S. Coast Guard, in the Treasury Department.
The problems of lighthouse construction are similar everywhere in the world, but the Great Lakes and north Atlantic ice action, southern coast hurricanes, and some earthquake areas need par ticular attention. This country has about 3o important lighthouses on submarine or unusually exposed sites, some involving difficult engineering; only a few of these are wave-swept lighthouses of primary significance. The following are important or typical wave swept U.S. lighthouses: Minots Ledge (186o), south of Boston harbour, the most nota ble, built on a reef, bare only at low water, exposed to the Atlantic's sweep; its construction lasted over 5 years. Steps were cut to receive the foundation. The conical-shaped tower is of granite, the first 4o ft. solid, base 3o ft. diameter, the light elevated 85 ft. The stones are dove-tailed in each course, connected verti cally by bonding bolts, and eight long iron posts pass through the lower courses into holes in the ledge.
White Shoal Ow 0), marking a shoal in northern Lake Michi gan. A timber crib 72 ft. square towed to the site, filled with
stone, was sunk in 22 feet of water; this supports concrete pier, tower and light 125 feet above water. Martin Reef (1927), northern Lake Huron, has a similar substructure.
On the Great Lakes important structures on submarine founda tions mark shoals, usually replacing the original lightships. Tim ber crib foundations, economical, satisfactory in fresh water, are favoured. Other types are: Concrete caissons towed to site, sunk on bottoms previously levelled, and filled with stone, i.e., Lansing Shoal (1928), Lake Michigan. Spectacle Reef Lake Huron and Stannard Rock (1882), Lake Superior have coffer-dams in protecting piers, the former for a stone tower on rock, the latter for a wrought iron cylinder foundation pier fitted to rock and concrete-filled.
Sabine Bank (1906), marking a sand bank about 14 m. off the Gulf coast, is a cast iron tower and substructure, standing in 18 feet of water. The iron caisson was towed to the site and sunk 20 ft. in sand by pneumatic process, the only U.S. lighthouse foun dation so placed in the open sea. There are others in protected waters.
Pacific Reef (1921), marking the outer edge of coral reefs off the Florida southern coast. It is supported by nine iron piles, each driven 9 ft. into the coral reef, the piles pass through, and are partially supported by, iron discs 4 ft. in diameter resting on the coral surface. In 7 ft. of water, it supports an iron open work structure. Although only an automatic acetylene light, 45 ft. high, it illustrates recent practice, at moderate cost. Six other lights, along the Florida reefs, on similar foundations, are notable struc tures, the tallest being Sombrero Key (1858), 16o feet.
Tillamook Rock 0880, a stone structure on a small rock islet 1 m. off the Pacific coast, south of the Columbia river's mouth, the most notable lighthouse on the United States western coast due to its position on extremely exposed rock, in deep water and open to the Pacific sweep. Landing is impossible directly on the rock, and can be made only by hoisting from a boat. Seas break sometimes over the lantern 145 ft. elevation. St. George Reef (1891) off the California coast is in a similarly difficult position.
Many lighthouses in water were built on screw-pile foundations, but none recently; one, Sand Key Light (5853), Florida, is 120 ft. high. Of many handsome masonry lighthouses along the coast, especially the low-lying Atlantic seaboard, Cape Hatteras is the highest, 193 feet though not now used for lighthouse purposes. Re inforced concrete has been extensively used recently to construct light towers, wharves and buildings.
The most notable is Navassa Island Light (1917), on a desert West Indian island, tower 162 ft., cylindrical shaft 15 ft. diameter. Another primary light of reinforced concrete is Kilauea Point (1913), Hawaiian islands; tower 52 ft. high, on a cliff.