Conferences only increased the differences. The Lutheran church seemed in danger of falling to pieces. In the end, the greater proportion adopted the Book of Concord (1577). Its recognition was mainly due to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. The churches within Germany which refused the Book of Concord became for the most part Calvinistic or Reformed. They published as was the fashion among the Reformed churches, separate creeds for themselves, but almost all accepted the Heidelberg Catechism. These differences in the German Protestant churches of the second half of the i6th century are reflected in the great American. Lutheran church. The church exists in three separate organiza tions. The General Synod of the Evangelical Church of the United States, organized in 182o, has no other creed than the Augsburg Confession, so liberally interpreted as not to exclude Calvinists. The Synodical Conference of North America, organized in 1872, compels its pastors to subscribe to the whole of the nine creeds contained in the Book of Concord. The General Council, a seces sion from the General Synod, was organized in 1867, and accepts the "unaltered" (invariata) Augsburg Confession in its original sense, and the other Lutheran symbols as explanatory of the Augs burg Confession.
The divided state of German Protestantism, resulting from these theological differences, contributed in no small degree to the disasters of the Thirty Years' War, and various attempts were made to unite the two confessions. Conferences were held at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645), Cassel 0660 ; but without suc cess. At length the union of the two churches was effected by the force of the civil authorities in Prussia (1817), in Nassau (1817), in Hesse (1823), in Anhalt-Dessau (1827) and elsewhere. These unions for the most part aimed, not at incorporating the two churches in doctrine and in worship, but at bringing churches or congregations professing different confessions under one gov ernment and discipline. They permitted each congregation to use at pleasure the Augsburg Confession or the Heidelberg Catechism. The enforced union in Prussia was combined with the publication of a new liturgy intended for common use. This led to secessions from the state church. These seceders were at first treated with great harshness, but have won their way to toleration, and form the Lutheran Free churches of Germany.
The liturgies of the Lutheran churches exhibit the same diversi ties in details as appear in their constitutions. It may be said in general that while Luther insisted that public worship ought to be conducted in a language understood by the people, and that all ideas and actions which were superstitious and obscured the primary truth of the priesthood of all believers should be expurged, he wished to retain as much as possible of the public service of the mediaeval church. The external features of the mediaeval churches were retained ; but the minor altars, the tabernacula to contain the Host, and the light permanently burning before the altar, were done away with. Tile ecclesiastical year with its fasts and festivals was retained in large measure. In 1526 Luther pub
lished the German Mass and order of Divine Service, which, without being slavishly copied, served as a model for Lutheran communities. It retained the altar, vestments and lights, but explained that they were not essential and might be dispensed with. The peril attending the misuse of pictures in churches was recognized, but it was believed to be more than counterbalanced by the instruction given through them when their presence was not abused. In short Luther contented himself with setting forth general principles of divine service, leaving them to be applied as his followers thought best. The consequence was that there is no uniform Lutheran liturgy.
The divergences in ritual and organization, the principle under lying all the various ecclesiastical unions, viz., to combine two different confessions under one common government, and, result ing from it, the possibility of changing from one confession to another, have all combined to free the state churches from any rigid interpretation of their theological formulas. A liberal and a conservative theology (rationalist and orthodox) exist side by side within the churches, and while the latter clings to the theology of the 16th century, the former ventures to raise doubts about the truth of such a common and simple standard as the Apostles' Creed. The extreme divergence in doctrinal position is fostered by the fact that the theology taught in the universities is in a great measure divorced from the practical religious life of the people, and the theological opinions uttered in the theological literature of the country cannot be held to express the thoughts of the members of the churches. Up to the beginning of the Great War, the relation of the Lutheran Church to the state was essentially as follows. In each state the sovereign was held to be the summus episcopus. He appointed a minister of public worship, and through him nominated the members of the govern ing body, the Oberkirchenrath or Consistorium or Directorium. This council dealt with the property, patronage and all other ecclesiastical matters. But each parish elected its own council for parochial affairs, which had a legal status and dealt with such matters as the ecclesiastical assessments. Delegates from these parish councils formed the Landessynode. In cases that call for consultation together, the Consistorium and the Synod appoint committees to confer. The income of the state churches was derived from four sources. The state made an annual provision for the stipends of the clergy, for the maintenance of fabrics and for other ecclesiastical needs. The endowments for church purposes, of which there were many, and which were destined to the support of foreign missions, clerical pensions, supply of books to the clergy, etc., were administered by the supreme council. The voluntary contributions of the people were all absorbed in the common income of the national churches and were administered by the supreme council. Each parish was legally entitled to levy ecclesiastical assessments for defined purposes.