Madagascar

The Hova Government aspired to have Madagascar recog nized as an independent civilized State, and consuls appointed by the British, French and United States Governments were accredited to the Malagasy sovereign. The treaty with Great Britain, concluded in 1865, gave the consuls of that nation juris diction over the British subjects in the island. At this period, on the initiative of the 4th earl of Clarendon, then foreign sec retary, an understanding was come to between the British and French Governments by which it was agreed that each Power should respect the independence of Madagascar; and the future of the country appeared to be bound up in the general consoli dation of the central Hova authority over the whole island.

Relations with the French.

While Hova rule would have satisfied British interests in the island, it was otherwise with the French. The tradition of their former settlements in and in fluence over the island was strong; in 184o they had taken under their protection the Sakalava ruler of the small island of Nossi-be, off the north-west coast, and in virtue of that act claimed a vague protectorate over the adjacent shores of the mainland. But a treaty, concluded in 1868, while establishing French con sular jurisdiction in Madagascar, recognized Ranavalona II. as queen of Madagascar, and under the Second Empire attempts to establish French political influence were discouraged; a change came under the Third Republic. In 1878 the French consul, Laborde, died, and a dispute arose as to the disposal of his property. The French Government supported the claims of Laborde's heirs, and revived their claim to a protectorate over the Sakalava of the north-west coast. A policy of colonial ex pansion generally, and in Africa in particular, was manifest at this time in France, as in other European countries, and the French claims on the Hova were pressed with vigour. To settle, if possible, the causes of dispute, two Hova officers of high rank were sent to France in 1882, but as they were not authorized to cede any territory, their visit accomplished very little. In Nay 1883 an ultimatum was sent to the Malagasy queen, requiring immediate compliance with the demands of France; and as these were refused by the Hova Government, Tamatave was bombarded by a French squadron and then occupied by the marines. After the war had continued in a desultory fashion for many months terms of peace were drawn up. By a treaty signed on Dec. 17, 1885, it was agreed that the foreign relations of Madagascar should be directed by France; that a resident should live at the capital, and that the Bay of Diego-Suarez, together with surrounding territory, should be ceded to France. The word

"protectorate" was carefully excluded from the treaty, although the French intended that this should be its practical issue. It was at the same time agreed that there should be no foreign interference with the internal government of the country, and that the queen should retain her position, with all its honours and dignity. Queen Ranavalona II. had died at the beginning of the war, on July 13, 1883, and had been succeeded by her niece, Princess Razafindrahety, under the title of Ranavalona III., who maintained the same policy as her predecessor. In 1890 the British Government, in return for concessions in Zanzibar, con sented to recognize a French protectorate over Madagascar, but the Malagasy prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, was not disposed to give any advantage to France, and continued to arm and train, with the help of British officers, a large body of native troops. This state of tension and irritation could not last, and at length, towards the close of 1894, the French Government sent an ultimatum to the Malagasy sovereign, demanding such powers as would have made French authority supreme in the island. These demands were refused and war followed. The chief ports were occupied by French troops, and an expeditionary force under Gen. Duchesne was landed on the north-west coast at Mojanga—commonly, hut incorrectly, written Majunga—with the object of breaking the Hova authority. Owing to the neces sity of making a road for the passage of artillery and military stores, many months were spent on the march, and there was considerable loss of life by fever and other disease among the invading troops. But no effectual resistance was made by the Malagasy, and at length, on Sept. 30, 1895, the French forces reached the heights north and east of Antananarivo. They bom barded the city, which surrendered in the afternoon, and on the evening of the same day the French entered the capital. The French protectorate now became effective in the central provinces, but the queen was allowed to retain her position. Early in 1896, however, a serious rebellion broke out in several parts of Imerina. This movement was not only anti-French and anti-foreign, but also anti-Christian. The French troops gradually broke up the power of the rebellion in the central provinces, but as there ap peared to be considerable unrest in many other parts of the island, Gen. Gallieni, an officer with a reputation for vigour and ability in the Sudan and Tongking campaigns, was sent out to relieve the then resident-general.