During this time Denmark was artistically the leading coun try in Scandinavia and had excellent representatives in Christian Fredrik Hansen (1756-1845) and Michael Gottlieb Bindesboll (1800-56) of the refined, national new Danish classicism. Han sen's leading works were Christiansborg castle in Copenhagen (destroyed by fire) and Vor Frue church in Copenhagen. In Thorwaldsen's museum Bindesboll created an original and beau tiful monument to the most celebrated sculptor of his time in northern Europe. The Dane Theophil Hansen (1813-91), who built the university in Athens and the house of parliament in Vienna, won international fame.
The Later 19th Century.—Continental architecture presents a varied picture during the latter part of the i9th century. The fashionable styles succeeded each other rapidly and academical architectonic education was mainly concentrated on imparting to the pupil an easy proficiency in the use of all these so-called "his torical styles." This schematic doctrine of styles is the product of one-sided and to some extent imperfect knowledge of the his tory of architecture. Through its self-sufficient belief in its ca pability to judge what is right and suitable in each style, it has caused great and irreparable damage in the restoration of old buildings, a favourite occupation of the period.
The inability of the 19th century to solve its building prob lems in an independent manner is probably partly cxplained by the furious tempo at which building activity developed during this time. The larger towns especially grew with a speed hitherto undreamed of, and during the latter part of the century the prob lems of town planning therefore became acute. The 19th cen tury did considerable preparatory work in this field, of which we are now enjoying the fruits. Many building problems arose which demanded an architecture of a totally different kind from the traditional. This was especially the case with industrial buildings, the great stores, railway stations, bridges, and skele ton buildings of many kinds. It is only in a few cases that the 19th century can show final solutions in these spheres, but by zealous experiments the way was nevertheless prepared for a new and more homogeneous art of building. At the exhibitions, which were so usual in this century, there was a great predilection for the new technical creations, and these exhibitions have there fore given interesting examples of what technique has been able to accomplish at different times.
Only a few of the great number of architects active during this time can be mentioned here. France has in Viollet-le-Duc (1814 i9) a prominent representative of the scientific art of restora tion, who occupies a leading position on the Continent. Charles Granier (1825-98) created a sumptuous edifice in the great opera house in Paris, which aroused enormous admiration amongst contemporaries. The Eiffel tower, erected by Gustave Eiffel for the Paris exhibition in 1889, has met with more criticism but has perhaps exercised a deeper influence on subsequent architecture. Germany has a refined and independent architect in Gottfried Semper (1803-79), who works in the spirit of the Renais sance. Alfred Messel (1853-191o) shows in his buildings, such as Wertheim's stores in Berlin, a free adaptation of historical styles to modern purposes. In Italy—roused to new life by her political independence—a lively building activity was devel oped during the latter part of the 19th century. The Galleria Vit torio Emanuele by Giuseppe Mengoni (182o-77) is a character istic example of the generously planned Italian building projects. At the turn of the century representatives appeared in Austria, Holland and Switzerland of new tendencies, which, however, were not fully developed until the 2oth century. Denmark still re
tained its leading position amongst the Scandinavian countries. This country, by maintaining a sound and moderate tradition, forms a point of departure for the national re-creation of archi tecture which is taking place in the northern countries at the beginning of the loth century. The town hall in Copenhagen by Martin Nyrop (1849-1921) is the best example of this style.
See W. H. Ward, The Architecture of the Renaissance in France (1912) ; R. T. Blomfield, A History of French Architecture, 1494-1774 (1921) ; P. Franke, Die Entwicklungsphasen der Neueren Baukunst (1914) ; J. Burckhardt, Geschichte der Renaissance in Italian (5th ed., 1912) ; G. von Bezold, Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland, Holland, Belgien, and Diinemark (19o8) ; G. A. Platz, Die Baukunst der Neuesten Zeit (1927) ; Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture (trans. from 13th French ed., 1927) ; Robertson and Yerbury, Ex amples of Modern French Architecture (1928) ; Hajos, E. M. and Zahn, Berliner Architektur der Nachkriegszeit (1928) ; Encyclopedie de L'Architecture, Construction Modernes, vol. i. (1928) ; Mieras and Yerbury, Modern Dutch Architecture of the zoth Century (1926) ; Stahl, Fritz, Neue Werkkunst German Bestelmeyer (1928). (H. An.) The architecture of England during the 18th century covers a longer period than commonly supposed. It begins with the school of Sir Christopher Wren and his contemporaries (see RENAIS SANCE ARCHITECTURE) and extends to the period of the Regency. Resting upon the broad foundation prepared in the late 17th cen tury it became subject to many external influences but in general remained constant to the classicism of the age. The classic view point may be said to have dominated all the arts and to this cause can be attributed the remarkable consistency of style which is the chief characteristic of the buildings of the time. Between the years 1700-1800 the population increased from five to eleven millions, steam-power was harnessed and commerce was almost quadrupled. The impetus given to architecture began with the Revolution of 1688, when direct governance fell into the hands of the Whig Party. From thence onwards statesmanship became more closely allied with commercial advantage, the nation changed its chief industry from agriculture to manufacture and a redis tribution of the people was in progress. Throughout the period architects appear to have expressed the new conditions with due regard to the spirit of the age. Broadly speaking the buildings group into two main divisions, i.e., monumental and domestic. In the main the tendencies were academic, and were related to similar impulses then in action on the Continent. English archi tecture, however, developed its own characteristics. The architects were continually seeking fresh inspiration from Italy and, at a later date, Greece. While this is true of the monumental aspect of certain buildings, the repose which is the chief attribute of the domestic architecture can be traced more directly to the Anglo Dutch tradition instituted by Wren. In addition, craftsmanship based upon mediaeval practice, and the persistence of regional traits, gave added piquancy to the vernacular style. It was not until the close of the first quarter of the i9th century that the old system began to be crushed out. On the monumental side the completion of St. Paul's cathedral and Greenwich hospital in the reign of Queen Anne, and the building of several new churches, terminated the immediate influence of Wren and Hawksmoor. Then ensued a transference of architectural energy to the erec tion of princely mansions in town and country expressing the sound status of the leaders among the Whig Party.