His nephew Danilo II. on accession divested him self of the episcopal office and became Gospodar, or Lord. He twice defended Montenegro against the Turks, defeating them near Ostrog in 1853 and at Grahovo in 1858, thus vindicating that independence which the Porte had challenged. On Aug. 11, 186o, he was murdered at Persano, by an act of private revenge, and was succeeded by his nephew Nicholas (q.v.), who in 1862 had to defend his country against a fresh Turkish invasion. In the
years of peace that followed he began to transform the rude clan levies into a modern army, and helped by Russian subsidies, estab lished the first secondary schools. In 1868 he granted to Monte negro her first constitution, with a premier and a Cabinet of five: but he remained an autocrat, with full control of policy and revenue, and grew rich at the country's expense. In 1869 he with difficulty held back his people from helping the rising of the Krivogije against Austria: but when in 1875 Hercegovina and Bosnia revolted against the Turks, similar tactics became impossi ble, and early in July 1876 he and prince Milan of Serbia jointly declared war on behalf of the insurgents. Though more success ful than Serbia—he occupied Nikgie and reached the coast at Antivari—he was obliged to conclude an armistice in November, and to await the decision of the Great Powers. The Treaty of Berlin assigned to Montenegro Nikgie, Podgorica, Antivari, Playa and Gusinje: but owing to the stout resistance of the Muslim and Albanian population of the two latter places they were, by a subsequent decision of the Powers (April 18, 1880), restored to Turkey, while the Hoti and most of the Klementi tribes were given to Montenegro. This also proved incapable of execution, and in the end Montenegro received Dulcigno in exchange for Playa and Gusinje. The new settlement could only be enforced after an international fleet under Admiral Seymour had appeared before Dulcigno and after the Turks had reduced the Albanian recalcitrants to order. The Treaty of Berlin contained further clauses restricting Montenegro's right to build ships and railways and placing the maritime control of her coasts in Austria-Hun gary's hands : while that Power's occupation of the Sandjak kept Montenegro and Serbia artificially separate for another 34 years.
For 3o years Montenegro enjoyed profound peace under the autocratic rule of Prince Nicholas, who in 1896 celebrated the second centenary of his dynasty and allied himself by marriage with the Russian and Italian dynasties, his fourth daughter Helen becoming Queen of Italy in 1900. In 1900 Nicholas a sumed the title of Royal Highness, and on August 28, 191o, proclaimed himself king. In the late '8os he was greeted by Tsar Alexander III. in a public toast as Russia's only friend in Europe : and his Russophil tendencies grew more marked as Milan ObrenoviC of Serbia threw himself into the arms of Austria-Hungary. It was Russia who arranged the marriage of Nicholas's daughter Zorka with Prince Peter, the exiled head of the rival Karagjorgjevi6 dynasty : and their son Alexander, afterwards king of Yugo slavia, was born at Cetinje. Nicholas had shown his Slav sym pathies in early life, and followed the literary tradition of his granduncle by composing a drama entitled The Empress of the Balkans, and the popular song "Onamo, 'Namo," with its dream of reoccupying the lost lands of the Serb. As an old man he
undoubtedly dreamt of supplanting the Karagjorgjevie and unit ing the race under the Petrovi6 dynasty.
The great poverty of Montenegro, in marked contrast to the relative wealth of its ruler, led to unrest and emigration: even in normal times it could not produce enough grain for its scanty population. In 1905 Nicholas found it advisable to proclaim a new constitution, providing a parliament of 76 members (14 nominated) but leaving the manner of election to the Ministry of Interior, which thus ordered public voting and exercised great pressure. At first the Progressives under Radulovi6 were allowed to take office, but their reforming zeal at home and their advocacy of union with Serbia soon led to a breach with the prince, who dissolved parlia ment and henceforth governed by creatures of his own. In 1908 followed the famous Cetinje Bomb Trial, which aimed at dis crediting the unionist movement, and which, though remaining a mystery, was known to have had connections with the Zagreb Treason Trial of the follOwing year. Nicholas's assumption of the royal title in 1910 was intended as a fresh move against Serbia, but the course of Balkan events after the Turkish Revolution soon made co-operation between Cetinje and Belgrade again inevitable. Indeed Montenegro not merely joined the Balkan League, but was the first to declare war upon Turkey in October 1912. The lack of heavy guns and the imperfect discipline of his gallant troops compelled Nicholas to resort to Serbian military aid on a con siderable scale, before Scutari could be reduced in April 1913. Austria-Hungary insisted upon the surrender of Scutari to the new Albania, and threatened war. Nicholas only yielded to an international naval blockade of the Montenegrin coast, and Ser bian troops were withdrawn from the Adriatic. The first Balkan war gave Montenegro and Serbia a joint frontier, the former Sanjak of Novi Pazar being partitioned between them ; and Monte negrin troops joined Serbia against Bulgaria in the second Balkan war. Early in 1914 the Montenegrin statesman, Miugkovi6, began serious discussions with PagiC for a financial and customs union between Serbia and Montenegro, a fusion of the two armies, a joint foreign policy and diplomatic representation, but retention of the two dynasties.
These negotiations became known to Vienna, who warned Petrograd that "Austria-Hungary would not remain a silent ob server," and regarded union as a challenge to her Adriatic inter ests. On this, Sazonov advised PagiC to postpone the negotiations. But the movement for union was rapidly becoming irresistible when the World War broke out and the two States found them selves side by side in resistance to Austria-Hungary. Prince Nicholas and his sons were, however, jealous and reserved, block ing the action of the Serbian General Jankovie, who had been sent at Russia's instance to reorganize the Montenegrin army. In May 1915 Prince Peter had a secret meeting in Dalmatia with the former Austro-Hungarian military attache, Hubka, and in November, during the invasion of Serbia, Crown Prince Danilo, through his friend Baron de Kruyff in Sofia, made overtures to the Central Powers, offering to cut off the Serbian retreat to the coast in return for territorial concessions to Montenegro in western Serbia and northern Albania.