(12). The Religious Orders in the Later Middle Ages.—The 13th century was the heyday of monasticism in the West; the mendicant orders were in their first fervour and enthusiasm and the great abbeys of Benedictines, Cistercians and Augustinian canons reflected the results of the religious reform and revival associated with Hildebrand's name. Under the Benedictine rule were formed the new congregations or orders of Silvestrines (1231), Celestines (c. 1260) and Olivetans (1319; qq.v.). But towards the end of the century a period of decline set in, which ran its course in increasing volume throughout the 14th century. A great wave of secularity rolled over the Church, engulfing the religious orders with the rest. The great schism was reflected in the mendicant orders which were divided into two obediences, to the destruction of discipline. The great wealth of the old monastic orders exposed them, especially in France and Italy, to the vicious system of commendation, whereby a bishop, an ec clesiastic, or even a layman was appointed "commendatory ab bot" of a monastery, merely for the purpose of drawing the reve nues (see ABBOT) ; the monasteries were of ten deprived even of necessary maintenance, the communities dwindled, and regular observance became impossible. In the Ger man lands, the lowest level was touched, and the writings of the Augustinian canon Johann Busch and of the Benedictine abbot Trithemius reveal a state of things in the first half of the 15th century that urgently called for reform. The first move in this direction was made in the Netherlands and north Germany under the influence of Ger hard Groot (q.v.) and issued in the forma tion of the Windesheim congregation of Augustinian canons and the secular con gregation of Brothers of Common Life (q.v.) founded c. 1384, both of which became centres of religious revival. Dur ing the first half of the 15th century nu merous and effective efforts at reform were initiated in all the orders without exception, and in every part of Europe. These movements, promoted by the councils of Con stance and Basle, partook of the spirit of the time and were char acterized by an extreme austerity of life, a certain hardness of spirit, and a sort of police regulation easily understandable at a time of reaction from grave abuses. At this time arose the Hieronymites (q.v.) founded in 1375, under the Augustinian rule, the Observants (1415) among the Franciscans (q.v.), and the Minims (founded c. 1460 by St. Francis of Paola, q.v.), whose programme was to outdo the Minors or Franciscans. The Ref or mation destroyed the monasteries in northern Europe and crip pled those in central Europe. But a tide of reaction soon began to flow.
(13). The Modern Orders.—During the Reformation period there sprang up to meet the needs of the time, a new kind of re ligious order, called Regular Clerks. These are religious orders in the full sense of the word, as the members take the solemn re ligious vows. Regular clerks are by their institute clerics and priests, and they are devoted to some particular work or works as their own special object—as education, the preaching of missions and retreats, or the going on missions to the heathen. They carry still further the tendencies that differentiate the friars from the monks; and have commonly given up the choral celebrations of the canonical office, which had been maintained by the friars.
Of regular clerks by far the most important are the Jesuits (q.v.) founded in 1540; there are also the Theatines (founded 1524 by St. Cajetan and Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV.) ; the
Barnabites (founded 1530, by St. Antonio Zaccaria) and others (see Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen [1897] II., §§108-114). Strictly speaking the "religious congregations" should be distinguished from the orders of regular clerks, the difference being that in the former the vows, though taken for life, are only "simple vows" and more easily dispensable by authority ; but the character and work of the two institutes is very similar. The chief of these congregations are the Passionists (founded by St. John of the Cross, 1725) and the Redemptorists (founded by St. Al f onsus Liguori, both dedicated to giving missions and re treats. The Christian Brothers, devoted to primary education, founded by St. Jean Baptiste de la Salle in 1679, are not in orders (Heimbucher, op. cit. §§115-118).
Besides the religious congregations there are a number of "secular congregations," composed of secular priests living to gether under temporary vows and free to leave at will ; the fol lowing deserve mention: Oblates of St. Charles (founded by St. Charles Borromeo, 1578) ; Oratorians (founded by St. Philip Neri, c. 157o); the French Oratory (founded by Cardinal Berulle, 1613), a similar but distinct institution, which produced a num ber of scholars of the highest distinction—Thomassin, Morin, Malebranche, Richard Simon, Juenin, Lebrun, Masillon, and others; Lazarists (founded by St. Vincent de Paul, 1624) ; Sulpi cians (founded by M. Olier, 1642), and a vast number of others, including several for the mission to the heathen (see Heimbucher op. cit. §§I24-14o).
During the period under review, from the Reformation to the French Revolution, the old orders went on alongside the new, and many notable revivals and congregations arose among them: the most noteworthy were the Capuchins (q.v.) among the Fran ciscans (1528) ; the Discalced Carmelites (q.v.) of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross (1562) ; the Trappists (q.v.) among the Cistercians (1663) ; and most famous of all, the Maurists (q.v.) among the Benedictines of France (1621).
(i4). The Religious Orders in Recent Times.—At the end of the 18th century and the opening of the 19th the religious orders received a succession of blows in those countries in which they had survived the Reformation. The Jesuits were suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. in and restored by Pius VII. in As the result of the ecclesiastical policy of the emperor Joseph II. nearly all religious houses of all kinds were suppressed throughout the Austrian dominions (1780). The French Revolution swept them out of France and caused the secularization of the great majority in Central Europe and Italy. In Portugal and Spain they were dissolved in 1834-35; in Italy in 1866; in the Prussian dominions in 1871. The last half of the 19th century, and more especially the last quarter, witnessed a remarkable revival of vi tality and growth in most of the older orders in nearly every country of western Europe, and besides an extraordinary number of new congregations, devoted to works of every sort, were founded in the loth century: Heimbucher (op. cit. §§II8, 140) numbers no fewer than 7o of these new congregations of men. In the new countries especially in the United States and Australia, but also in South Africa, orders and congregations of ; all kinds are most thriving. The chief set-back has come again in France, where, by the Association Laws of 1903, the religious orders have nearly all been suppressed and expelled and their property confiscated. Many religious returned to France after the World War.