As all ornament is designed to form a pattern, whether it is composed of repeat units or as a general composition, the rhythms and interrelations of the structural background on which the ornamental detail is composed are as important as the primary functions of the design itself. It is this structure which gives coherence, unity and the sense of space and time to the ornamental design. In the consideration that all ornament must bear the repe tition of being seen not only once but many times, the longer the element of time appreciation that is consciously set up within the design the more enduring in interest it will become. Yet it must not be so extended and involved as to be incomprehensible upon close inspection. It seems evident that a design whose rhythmic quality is purely mechanical, even though colour is used to superimpose an additional rhythm, must fail in possessing a sustained interest. The design motif fulfills its sole purpose when it creates a longer time interest in the object ornamented through its added beauty. This growth in time interest in appreciation of ornament is closely allied with the same growth in the complexity of the manners and philosophy of the people who are creating or modifying the ornamental design. A very clear conception of this interrelation of thought and design can be obtained from the study of the differences in growth of oriental and occidental ornamental motifs ; the differences remain even when there are signs of influence of one thought upon the other, or through the gradual change from simplicity to complexity which is evident in the difference between the early ornament and thought of the Gothic period (see GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE) and its later de velopment. And while it is evident that the technical ability of the craftsman has contributed a great deal as to whether the design motifs. are simple or complex—for instance, compare the wood carving of the Jacobean craftsmen with the work of Grinling Gibbons and the later English wood carvers—it would seem that the technical skill had but kept pace with the civilization with which it is associated, for as a civilization advances it is apparent that ornamental design becomes more complex rather than less, that the design motifs become fuller in nature, richer in detail and more nearly perfect in technique.
Materials.—It is generally thought that the treatment of orna ment is definitely limited by and related to processes and ma terials, although throughout the history of ornament motifs and technique have been freely translated from one material to another without loss of harmony. The architectural motifs, for example, both structural and ornamental have always been used as pure ornament in the furniture and accessories of the same style. Orna mental design in which the design is not inherently manufactured can be considered apart from the material it embellishes. The material of which the structure is built limits only the coarseness or fineness of the technique of the detail employed, although, for example, most stones or woods may be carved crudely or deli cately according to the effect desired by the designer, the scale desired, or the technical ability of the craftsman. This being so, the actual design motif may be thought of for its effect as such and is only limited in its possibilities by the thought and ability of the creator who might use it to obtain a difference in texture as a help in making a transition between two materials, or to create the pattern interest that comes from employing detail. In its relations to the material employed, it may be either structurally inherent or applied. Structural ornament is either integral, that is part of the structure as in weaving or where a structural member is changed for added grace, or as in veneers where the inherent pattern of wood or marble is used; whereas applied ornament may have little or no relation to the structure other than being placed upon it, and as its name implies is added later for pure embellish ment.
Modern Tendency.—The ornament of the present, because of the almost immediate world-wide communication of ideas, is breaking away from the local or national boundaries and is be coming more universal in its characteristics. This will not necessa rily lead to a tighter standardization because the means by which design is produced has undergone a great change. Since ornament has always had a very definite relation to the tools and technical ability of the period in which it is produced, it would seem natural that ornament, which is becoming more and more dependent upon the machine for its production and upon designers of greater perceptibility, will become less standardized because of the ease with which the tools are changed and improved, and as the self consciousness of the designer in designing for the machine be comes less as the communities become more completely indus trialized. This loss in standardization will tend to give a sense
of greater freshness and creativeness in design and will give, be cause of the freedom in execution, a maximum individuality to the work of the designer.
For a complete list of the various architectural subjects treated in this work see ARCHITECTURAL ARTICLES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.—L'Art pour Tous (186o-92); 0. Jones, The Gram nar of Ornament (1868) ; C. Daly, Motifs historiques d'architecture et le sculpture d'ornemcnt (1869-8o) ; C. Boito, Arte Italiana (189o t9o1) ; Decorative Work of Robert and James Adam, reproduction of plates from their "Works in Architecture (1778-1812)" (1900) ; E. Male, Religious Art in France (1913); J. D. Crace, The Art of Colour Decoration (1913) ; A. Speltz, Coloured Ornament of all Historical Styles (1915) ; Arte y Decoration en Espana, ed. V. Casellas Montanus (1917-27) ; R. Grandjean, Ceramique Orientale (1922) ; D. Baud Bovy, Peasant Art in Switzerland (1924) ; L. Sullivan, A System of Architectural Ornament (1924) ; H. T. Bossert, Peasant Art in Europe (1926) ; F. Boas, Primitive Art (1927) . (R. T. WA.) ORNAMENTS, PRIMITIVE. The term "ornament" is strictly applied to objects worn from a sense of aesthetic value and intrinsic beauty either in gratification of the personal taste of the wearer, or in accord with fashion. But it can also be applied to objects which are worn for other reasons, such as the various objects worn for magico-religious reasons, as indications of social distinction and status, for the purpose of protection, as amulets and charms, or even as curatives. As Professor Rad cliffe Brown pointed out, the desire for protection and the desire for display "are very intimately related and are really both in volved in every kind of ornament. All ornament in some way marks the relation of the individual to the society." (Andaman Islanders, p. 319.) Classes of ornaments in primitive society mark distinctions of sex and social status, the unmarried having ornaments peculiar to their status which differ conspicuously from those allowed to or required of married people. Articles worn as dress, that is, either for protection against climatic con ditions, or from modesty may become ornaments if an element of aesthetic appreciation helps to determine individual choice or fashionable vogue. Decorations may be worked on or fashioned to plain materials to make the whole ornamental. In communities of a more permanent order, ornament and embellishment, external and internal, is applied to architecture in personal rivalry or in token of social status. To religious zeal is due the wealth of orna ment often found in the Men's House—the centre of the com munal life, the repository of the cult objects of the community, the origin of the temple.
The objects worn as ornaments are sometimes of a considerable degree of elaboration. Wings of butterflies, gorgeous tropical beetles, seeds, berries, flowers, variegated leaves, bright stones, all sorts of natural products are employed. The manufacture of ornaments as prescribed by the social order is an occupation of importance. Thus, "The Akamba wear a great number of orna ments (mapa) of various kinds, especially metal ones, but they never overload their bodies with them on ordinary occasions.
On account of the composition and choice of colours these orna ments are attractive even to European ideas of beauty, and the fine execution of the work must arouse admiration." (G. Lind blom, Akamba, 1920, p. 375.) Nature provides the materials and the models. The sense of colour is expressed by using different coloured earths, the quest for which is a stimulus towards eco nomic development. Conventionalization, vulgarization, degrada tion and imperfect, unintelligent, imitations are notable in primi tive art but at one and the same time in one community there may be artists of very different capacities.