Officers.—Officers of the Italian army are nomi nated by royal decree but do not hold documentary "commis sions," as in the British army. Honorary nominations and hon orary ranks do not exist. All officers are classified into two groups, each of which is divided into certain categories. The first group is known as "ufficiali in servizio altivo permanente" (offi cers in permanent service), and corresponds approximately to the British "active list." The second group is called "ufficiali in con gedo," a term for which no correct British equivalent exists. The verbal translation is "officers on furlough," but as this group forms the reserve of officers of the Italian army, the latter term has been adopted.
The system of training is similar to that of the British service, and similarly there are schools of instruction and courses for every kind of specialist training.
During peace, promotion is carried out partly by selection and partly by seniority throughout the army, a general list being kept for each arm up to and including a certain rank, which varies with each arm, e.g., in the Carabinieri up to general of division, but in the Commissariat Corps up to lieu tenant-colonel. In order to qualify for promotion, officers must serve a minimum period of (a) three years as a lieutenant, (b) four years as a captain, and (c) two years in all other ranks. In addition to this time qualification confidential reports have to be rendered on all officers concerning their general efficiency. Up to and including majors, these reports are rendered separately by three senior officers, and on officers above this rank by two senior officers and a central promotion commission. This body exists for the purpose of considering promotions to the rank of colonel and to the various ranks of general. It consists of the chief of staff and the four army commanders designate. Other senior officers may also be co-opted to give evidence for or against the promotion of an officer under their command, but such officers have no vote. The decisions of the C.P.C. are final, provided they are approved by the minister of war. If they are not approved, or if there is an equality of votes, the final decision rests with the minister of war.
The combatant officers are drawn from a very wide social class. Entry can be effected through the ranks or by direct ap pointment to the Ecole militaire. In both cases a preliminary examination is compulsory. Examinations are held yearly for entrance to the Ecole militaire, the equivalent to Sandhurst and Woolwich. Candidates are drawn from three sources: (a) private life, (b) the Ecole des Pupilles, and (c) n.c.o.'s and men of the active army, who have a special examination and are afforded facilities for study with a view to passing it.
This is a most difficult problem in the Belgian army owing to the absence of a statute defining the exact status and duties of reserve officers and the dislike of the average citizen to undertaking a duty which means giving up his business or his holidays for training. The supply of officers in war ema nates from the following sources: (a) actual army, (b) regular officers unattached, on half-pay, or in the Congo, (c) retired regu lar officers, under the age limit and fit, (d) Ecole militaire and Ecole d'Application students, (e) voluntary engagements of re tired officers, not subject to recall, (f) men specially selected, (g) promoted n.c.o.'s.
After passing the schools prior to com mission, officers have no further examination until they come up for promotion to field rank. They are, however, reported upon periodically by their commanding officers.
All officers pass through the ranks prior to commission, and have attended certain definite courses of instruction in each rank. The training of recruits and cadres (officers and n.c.o.'s) is car ried out at courses of instruction, specially held for that purpose, by a small permanent body of officers and n.c.o.'s, called the corps of instructors. As a general rule, officers of each rank must have held that rank for four years before they can be pro moted. They must prove their fitness for promotion by obtain ing a certificate of efficiency. Promotion to lieutenant is by seniority, to all other ranks by selection.
All citizens of the Polish State can become officers; thus Jews, or men of Russian or German nationality who are citizens of Poland, are equally eligible, with the native Pole, to become officers. As a general rule, only men of good social position are taken into the cavalry and horse artillery. The corps of officers is divided into several branches, but all have equal rights and stand on an equal footing. All officers who were previously offi cers in the old Russian, Austrian or German armies were accepted into the Polish army in the same rank as they held in their previ ous army. A young man may become a regular officer either by direct entry or by passing through the ranks. Young men wishing to obtain a direct commission must pass through the podchorgzy or officers' school. N.c.o.'s who desire to obtain commissionF, must complete three years' service as n.c.o.'s, have reached the rank of plutonowy (sergeant), be specially recommended, and have passed certain middle school classes or have war service. Selected n.c.o.'s are sent for a two years' course at the officers' school for n.c.o.'s at Bydgosc. Promotion is by selection and seniority ; second lieutenants are promoted lieutenant after two years' service; further promotion is governed by length of service and selection.
Officers are obtained solely from cadet schools, Wiiich in Estonia and Latvia are the smartest and most efficient institutions in the army. The cadets are drawn mainly from the secondary schools and universities. They io a two years' course of training (in Estonia three years, for all except infantry). The cadet schools contain in Estonia about 30o cadets, in Latvia 200, in Lithuania 400. All officers on retirement, except in special circumstances, are held to serve in the reserve.
Officers are obtained from (a) cadets from the Royal Military college at Breda, (b) n.c.o.'s who have graduated at the Hoofd cursus or final course at Kampen; such n.c.o.'s must previously have passed through the instructional battalion. The training of officers is on the same general lines as other European armies. The staff college (hoogere krijgsschol) at The Hague trains offi cers for the staff, the course being of three years' duration. There are various schools of instruction for specialized training.
The systems of appointment to commissions in the air services differ under the various governments and are dealt with accord ingly under the headings of their several countries.