North America

There are some interesting but as yet insufficient indications of Australian or Melanesian Negroid influence on the physique of the American Indians of certain localities. The very long and low skulls of the south end of Baja California may represent a colony or infusion of such immigrants. Similar conjectures have been advanced about the long headed peoples of the Atlantic sides of both North and South America.

Language.

The outstanding characteristic of native American speech is its diversity. According to the usual reckoning there are more stocks of languages in either North or South America than in the entire eastern hemisphere—about 75 on each conti nent. Recent researches have moved in the direction of uncover ing remote similarities between some of these stocks, thereby reducing their number. There is little indication of borrowing between languages, except in South America.

The older view that American languages are overwhelmingly agglutinating, incorporating or polysynthetic, can no longer be maintained. There are languages as genuinely inflectional (Penu tian) and isolating (Otomi, Zapotec) as in the Old World. It is, however, true that the Indian languages tend to describe con cretely and visually. Elements expressing the instrument or man ner of action, the shape or position, and space relations, although by no means universal, are frequently well developed in the grammatical structure. It is also true that many of the idioms do not shrink from piling up structural elements into long words. The most important linguistic stocks north of Costa Rica, in point of number of speakers or territory, are Eskimo, Athabascan, Algonkin, Iroquoian, Siouan, Muskogi, Caddoan, Uto-Aztecan, Salish, Sahaptin, Penutian, Hokan, Tarascan, Otomi, Totonac, Zapotecan, Mixe-Zoque, Maya, all of which are separately de scribed. Of secondary rank, and also treated separately, are Tlingit and Haida (with Athabascan = Na-Dene?), Tsimshian, Wakashan (Kwakiutl and Nutka), Chinook, Kootenay, three Pueblo stocks (Tanoan, Keres, Zuni), Kiowa (with Tanoan?), Tonkawa, Natchez (probably with Muskogi),Yuchi, Beothuk. The remaining small stocks are in Washington, Chimakum ; in Oregon, Wailatpu and Lutuami (with Sahaptin?) ; Kalapuya; Yakonan; Kus and Takelma (Penutian?) ; in California, Yurok and Wiyot (Algonkin?), and Yuki; in Texas, Coahuiltecan and Karankawa (Hokan?) ; in Louisiana, Tunica, Chitimacha, Atakapa (probably related) ; in Florida, Timucua, Calusa, perhaps Arawak and Carib colonies ; in north-eastern Mexico, Tamaulipan, Xanambre, Olive, Lagunero ; in Baja California, Waicuri and Pericu (perhaps dis tinct) ; in Guerrero and Nicaragua, Subtiaba; in Oaxaca, Huave (Mixe-Zoque?) ; in Chiapas and Nicaragua, Chiapanec (Chorotec, Chinantec) ; and, in Honduras and Nicaragua, Xinca, Lenca, Matagalpa, Xicaque, Paya, Mosquito, Ulva, Chibchan.

Culture.

The culture of the American Indians, like that of any large group, is so complex that a descriptive review is inade quate in proportion as it is compact. This culture is therefore perhaps best considered from the point of view of how its constit uents classify as to origin—elements common to America and the Old World, peculiar to America, important in the Old World but lacking in the New, etc.

I. A

series of simple culture traits are literally (or practically) universal among American tribes and of equally common occur rence in the Old World, and may be assumed to have formed part of the culture stock with which the first immigrants came into the hemisphere. These traits include the use of fire and the ability to make fire with the drill ; the dog as a domesticated or semi domesticated animal; stone implements for piercing, cutting, scraping, chopping; the spear, the spear-thrower, and probably the harpoon and bow; cordage, netting, and basketry; adolescence rites for boys and girls ; shamanistic beliefs and practices. These elements survive in the more remote and backward portions of the eastern hemisphere, and for the most part have their relative antiquity attested directly by archaeology, carrying back to the end of the Palaeolithic or beginning of the Neolithic period.

2. Equally well defined is a class of culture traits which are widespread in the eastern hemisphere, in fact practically universal in all parts possessing a sufficient development, but are totally lacking in both North and South America. These elements evi dently originated in the Old World subsequent to the movement which mainly populated America; they were not for some reason, perhaps chiefly because of the inhospitable conditions and back wardness of culture in the region of Bering Sea, diffused into America. This class of traits includes all the important domesti cated animals and plants excepting the dog, viz., cattle, sheep, the goat, pig, horse, ass, camel and even reindeer; wheat, barley, rice, etc.; the plough and the wheel; iron; stringed instruments. Environment may be held responsible for the absence of some of these from the western hemisphere; it cannot account for the non-existence of iron-working, the plough and the wheel.