Other observatories of the first half of the 19th century, though not on the magnificent scale of Pulkowa but associated with the names of distinguished astronomers, are those of Konigsberg, established by the king of Prussia in 1813 and put in the charge of F. W. Bessel who had already made a reputation at the ob servatory at Lilienthal. The observatory at Altona near Ham burg, completed in 1823, was made famous because of its association with Schumacher, to whose personality is ascribed the encouragement given to astronomy by the Danish Government. The instruments of this observatory were not of great size for the work of Schumacher lay rather in the direction of geodesy and astronomical literature, and it is to him that astronomy owes the famous publication Die Astronomische Nachrichten. Schumacher died in 185o, and his successors, Petersen, Hansen and C. A. F. Peters are also remembered. In 1874, this observatory was trans ferred to Kiel, which had then become the chief German naval station, and formed the international central bureau for distribu tion of astronomical information until the World War, when this useful work was transferred to Copenhagen.
The Royal observatory at Berlin had its origin in the year 1705, and for ioo years or more consisted of instruments in adequately housed in the building that was the home of the Academy of Sciences, but was established as a separate building in the years 1832-35, and has accomplished successful work. main ly meridian, though its position in the midst of a populous city is to its detriment. It was with the gin. refractor of this observa tory that the planet Neptune was first seen. The establishment of an observatory at the University of Bonn was decided on by the king of Prussia, in 1836, and Argelander, who had been director of the Abo observatory, Finland, transferred to Helsingfors in 1837, was chosen as director. Although the instruments of this observatory are not large, the stupendous work of Argelander, carried on by his successors, in star-cataloguing, indicates its principal branch of activity. The University of Strasbourg has an observatory attached to it completed by the German Govern ment in 1881, consisting of three magnificent buildings placed in a large open garden. Its largest telescope, the great Equa torial, a refractor with object glass of loin. aperture, is said to have been the largest in Germany at the time of its erection. The University observatory, Vienna, built on a new site in the years 1874-80 to replace one that dated from the middle of the r8th century, is a large structure standing in grounds of 14 acres in extent, with an imposing facade and surmounted by four domes designed on the model of the Berlin observatory. Basle (1874), Bordeaux (1879), Breslau (179o), Budapest (1856), Cracow (r791), Kazan, Leipzig (1790, remodelled in 1860, Lund, are other universities of Europe that have observatories attached to them. At Heidelberg (Konigstuhl), a private observatory founded by Dr. Max Wolf in 1877, was merged in a Grand-Ducal Institute, established in 1898, which combines two sections: one is an astrometric observatory that had existed successively at Schoetzingen, Mannheim and Karlsruhe since 1762 (v. supra
Mannheim), and an astrophysical observatory under the direc tion of Dr. Wolf. This observatory has been successful in the discovery of comets and small planets, and in the observation of variable stars, nebulae and the Milky Way. To these may be added the municipal observatory of Hamburg, memorial to Repsold, and the private observatories of Dr. Engelmann at Leipzig, of Baron d'Engelhardt at Dresden, of von Kuffner and von Oppolzer at Vienna.
Before the World War there were ten French national observa tories under the control of a consultative committee that reported annually to the Government. The Paris observatory of the 17th century has been mentioned. Some that were resuscitated or cre ated in the ten years after the war of 1870-71, have history behind them. An observatory at Marseilles, founded by the order of Jesuits about the year 1700, was taken over in 1749, after the expulsion of the Order, as the Royal Naval observatory and made famous by Pons, Bernard, Gambart, Valz and Chacornac. A new observatory was built in 1862 with which the older one was incor porated and the names of Stephan, Coggia and Borrelly recall many discoveries of minor planets and comets made with its instruments. The observatory at Toulouse had a predecessor as early as 1718, but the existing establishment dates from about 1840 when it was erected and supplied with excellent instruments at the public expense, but with an inadequate staff, so that it was devoted for many years solely to meteors and meteorology. After being closed for three years it was reopened in 1873, the subse quent workers there including Tisserand, Perrotin, Bigourdan and Baillaud, all well-known names in astronomy.
There had nominally been an observatory at Bordeaux for roo years because the Academy of Sciences of Bordeaux, soon after the transit of Venus of 1769, which had been observed from that city, built a tower 75ft. high, of 2oft. interior diameter that went by that name; but of this the existing observatory, founded in 1879 and completed in 1882, is quite independent. This observa tory, together with those at Paris, Toulouse and Algiers, is taking a share in the international work of charting the heavens by pho tography. The Algiers observatory, about half a century old, is an imposing group of buildings set up on a hill at Boudzareah. near Algiers. The two observatories that complete the ten are the solar physical observatory at Meudon near Versailles, which is actually an old chateau that was converted for the purpose in 1876, and put under the direction of M. Janssen and carried on after his death by M. Deslandres, the present director of the Paris observatory, and the observatory at Nice. This observa tory on Mt. Gros was built in 1881 at a cost of five million francs and placed under the direction of M. Perrotin, the princi pal instrument being an equatorially-mounted refracting telescope of 3oin. aperture, which has been employed with considerable suc cess in the observation of comets, asteroids and nebulae. It was bequeathed by the founder to the University of Paris in 1899 and now ranks as a national institution.