In the rest of the area, with its basis of horticulture, the eco nomic struggle is not so keen, and the population is a settled one, except for a few nomadic or semi-nomadic peoples in New Guinea. Diet is mainly vegetarian, taro, yams, bread-fruit, sweet potato, coco-nuts, sago and bananas being the principal foods. In island and coastal regions fish is largely consumed, and almost every where pigs are reared and reserved for consumption on occasions of importance, such as marriage festivals and mortuary feasts. Although cannibalism is common, the eating of human flesh is usually a ceremonial act of revenge, or associated with mortuary or other rites. Canoes capable of long sea voyages are constructed, principally in the island areas. Double canoes, and outrigger canoes of various patterns and, formerly, double canoes which only survive at the present day in a limited part of New Guinea, are the commonest, the larger ones being provided with sails. While intercommunication is much hampered by warfare, goods are traded over considerable distances, and in many areas well developed systems of currency occur.
One feature of social organization ap pears to be common to the whole of this area, namely, the sys tematic non-genealogical use of relationship terms, generally known as the classificatory system. If we select any person in a village and enquire as to his relationship to others in the village, he will rarely be at a loss, for everyone is likely to be a mother, or a brother, an uncle or a father-in-law, etc., in this classificatory sense, and such relationships will be found to hold to a large num ber of persons in other more distant villages. Moreover, these classificatory relationships are important determinants of conduct, many rights and duties being dependent on relationship, though when the relationship is very distant in the classificatory sense they are hardly distinguishable. One of the most important func tions of this relationship system lies in the regulation of marriage, those lying in certain relationships being prohibited from mar riage, while in some cases only those persons who can estab lish a given relationship between themselves are allowed to marry. Marriage, however, is generally regulated, at least in part, by the clan (q.v.) which is usually, throughout this area, the most im portant social unit. Particularly in Australia, Melanesia and New Guinea, and to a slightly less extent in Polynesia, is the clan a fundamental unit of the social structure. Membership of the clan is determined by descent through the father or the mother, both varieties being common, and marriage is prohibited within the clan. As a rule, the clan is also totemic (see Tommism), this
totemic aspect being peculiarly important in Australia, where to temic rites form a large part of the ceremonial life of the natives. In parts of the area, especially Australia and Melanesia, the clans are grouped into two exogamous moieties (see DUAL ORGANIZA TION), and there is some evidence which suggests that a dual or ganization once extended over most of the area or occurred among their ancestors before their migrations into Oceania.
In Australia and parts of Mela nesia, age appears to be an important qualification of leadership, councils of elders deciding matters of tribal importance. In parts of Melanesia there is little vested authority, a more or less com munistic system prevailing, while in other parts, authority de pends on the acquirement of prestige derived from the holding of feasts, or the acquisition of wealth. Hereditary chieftainship is common in Polynesia, where a considerable social gulf may exist between nobles and commoners.
Ceremonies of initiation into manhood occur amongst Australians and many Papuans, and are found amongst some Melanesians, mainly in connection with secret societies (q.v.), which in some cases dominate the social organization.
The belief in spirits of the dead is general through out this area, and some degree of cult of the dead is present every where. In some cases, mortuary ceremonial reaches a very high degree of elaboration, particularly in the case of chiefs. Violent orgies of mutilation on the occasion of a death are reported from Australia, and in extreme form from Polynesia. But the existence of an elaborate mortuary ceremonial is not necessarily associated with anything that can be called a worship of the dead, which is probably confined to Polynesia, parts of Melanesia and Micro nesia. Between spirits of the dead, or ghosts, and spirits or gods not definitely associated with some ancestor, there is no sharp line of demarcation, but sometimes there are separate words for these two kinds of beings, and a different cult is associated with each, a practice common in Melanesia. Certain ghosts or spirits may be of sufficient importance to rank as gods, who are able to affect more or less the destinies of man, or who are credited with having performed certain acts of creation, or to have introduced im portant foods or new customs. An elaborate mythology centres around these culture heroes throughout the area, and provide us with suggestive hints as to culture movements and culture con tacts in the past.