In America increase of knowledge in ornithology subsequent to Audubon and Wilson (who was a contemporary of Audubon in the study of American birds and published an excellent and painstaking account of them) came rapidly with the appoint ment of Spencer Fullerton Baird as assistant-secretary 05 the Smithsonian institution. Baird's early years in this new position were coincident with the initiation of the great exploratory sur veys, including the Hayden surveys and the survey of the 4oth parallel of latitude, undertaken by the Government to develop the western part of the United States. Baird established the U.S. National Museum as a depository for specimens of all kinds belonging to the American Government, and arranged to send naturalists with the different survey parties, with the result that large collections, particularly of birds and mammals, came to Washington, furnishing the material for many important reports.
At the same time Baird initiated the preparation of a complete review of the birds of America, a project that he had perforce to turn over finally to Robert Ridgway because of increasing ad ministrative duties. The final result has been the publication by the U.S. National Museum since 19o1 of 8 vols. under the title, Birds of North and Middle America. Two more volumes are ex pected to bring this work to completion.
Ornithological Societies.—As ornithologists increased in number desire for discussion of their problems grew, to take shape finally in serials devoted to birds alone. Among the early peri odicals that continue to-day there may be mentioned especially the Journal fur Ornithologie begun in 1853, the Ibis, founded by the British Ornithologists' Union in 1859, and the Auk, originated by the American Ornithologists' Union in 1883. The last men tioned is a direct continuation of the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, established by that organization in April 1876. The Zoological Society of London, especially in its earlier years, has had a profound influence on the development of orni thology through the labours of its prosectors, particularly A. H. Garrod, W. A. Forbes and Frank E. Beddard, and through its publications, especially the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, and its precursor the Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of the Zoological Society (183o, etc.).
Today, there is an ornithological or similar society in most of the principal countries of the world. At the present time there are more than 3o periodicals devoted to various phases of bird study alone. Of these the most important to the ornithologist has
been the Zoological Record, published annually since 1864 by the Zoological Society of London. The section devoted to Alms now annually contains reference to more than i,000 separate papers.
Bird Protection.—Another phase of ornithological interest that has obtained extended popular support in the past two dec ades is that of the protection of useful or harmless birds. (See BIRDS, PROTECTION OF ; BIRD SANCTUARIES.) Legislation intended to restrict the killing of ducks, grouse and other birds considered as game, began in very early times, indication of recognition of the propriety of such action being found in the Old Testament (Deuteronomy, xxii., 6-7) where there is a prohibition against the killing of a bird on the nest.
In the laws of the Welsh king, Howel of Cambria, about the loth century A.D., there are definitions of the various kinds of hunts, including the hunting of the pheasant. Such penalties as the loss of both eyes were provided by William, duke of Nor mandy, for peasants who had the temerity to kill game reserved for the nobility. Game protection was thus one of the early tenets of Anglo-Saxon law, and so came early to the New World, particularly to the United States, though, unfortunately, it has not been possible to show clearly the need for rigid protective measures until the destruction of game had greatly reduced valuable species of birds. In America protective measures to con serve valuable birds antedate the coming of the Caucasian, how ever, since the Inca rulers recognizing the value of the sea birds of the coasts of Peru as producers of fertilizers, forbade anyone under penalty of death to enter or disturb their rookeries during the breeding season. For many years in America legislation for the protection of game-birds was considered a local matter and was applied by States or territories individually. It has become recognized recently that this procedure, through lack of uni formity, did not give proper protection to ducks, geese and other migratory game-birds, which has led finally to assumption by the Federal Government of control over non-sedentary species, and a covenant with Canada known as the Migratory Bird treaty, arranged in 1916, which provides uniform regulations for the two countries concerned. The success of this measure has been so pronounced that it has attracted wide attention and will lead to similar measures between other nations.