The act of swearing by weapons may signify that the swearer if forsworn is to die by such a weapon; or the warrior may appeal to his weapon as a powerful or divine object (see Du Cange, s.v. "Juramenta super arma"; Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterth., p. 896). Stretching forth the hands towards the object or deity is a natural gesture, used by Israelites (Gen. xiv. 22 ; Deut. xxxii. 40; see Dan. xii. 7; Rev. x. 5). In France a juror takes oath by raising his hand, saying, "Je jure!" The Scottish judicial oath is taken by the witness holding up his right hand uncovered, and repeating after the usher, "I swear by Almighty God, and as I shall answer to God at the great day of judgment, that I will," etc.
In the ancient world sacrifice (q.v.) often formed part of the ceremony of the oath; typical examples may be found in the Homeric poems. Details of the old Scandinavian oath have been preserved in Iceland in the Landnamabok (Islendinga Sogur, Copenhagen, 1843) ; a bracelet (baugr) of two rings or more was to be kept on the altar in every head court, which the godi or priest should wear at all law-things held by him, and should redden in the blood of the bullock sacrificed, the witness pronouncing the remarkable formula : "Name I to witness that I take oath by the ring, law-oath, so help me Frey, and Niord, and almighty Thor" (hialpi mer sva Freyr, ok Miordr, ok hinn almattki Ass), etc. This was doubtless the great oath on the holy ring or bracelet which the Danes swore to King Alfred to quit his kingdom.
Under Christ's injunction, "Swear not at all" (Matt. v. 34; also James v. 12), many Christians have shrunk from taking oaths, see writings of the Fathers. In more modern times Ana baptists, Mennonites and Quakers have refused to take even judicial oaths. On the other hand, the laws of Christendom from early ages have been directed against such swearing as was con sidered profane or otherwise improper, and against perjury. Con stantine's laws required every witness in a cause to take oath ; this is confirmed in Justinian's code which even in some cases re quires also the parties and advocates to be sworn (Cod. Theod. xi. 39; Justin. Cod. iv. zo, 59). Bishops and clergy were called upon to take oath in ordination, monastic vows, and other ecclesiastical matters (see details in Bingham, Antiq. of Chr. Church, xvi. 7). The Reformation conformed to this principle in Art. xxxix. of the church of England. The Christian oath on a copy of the Gospels seems derived from the late Jewish oath taken holding in the hand the scroll of the law (or the phylacteries), a ceremony itself pos sibly adapted from Roman custom (see treatise "Shebuoth" in Gemara). The practice of kissing the book, established in Eng land, appears in the middle ages (J. E. Tyler, Oaths, pp. 119, 151). The book was often laid on the altar, or the swearer laid his hand on the altar itself, or looked towards it ; or touched relics of saints on the altar. Other objects, as the cross, the bishop's crosier, etc., were sworn by (see Du Cange, s.v. "Jurare"). An oath ratified by contact or inspection of a sacred object was called a "corporal" or bodily oath, as distinguished from a merely spoken or written oath.
Louis and Charles at Strassburg in A.D. 842 runs : "By God's love and the Christian people and our common salvation, as God shall give me knowledge and power," etc. In the oath of fealty in the capitularies of Charlemagne in 802, is found the familiar form "Sic me adjuvet Deus," corresponding to formulas of pre-Christian Rome. This became widely spread in Europe, appearing in Old French "Si m'ait Dex," German "So mir Gott helfe," English "So help me God." A remarkable point in its history is its occurrence in the "So help me Frey," etc., of the old Scandinavian ring-oath already described. William the Conqueror swore "by the splendour of God," Richard I. "by God's legs," John "by God's teeth"; other phrases are given in Du Cange as "per omnes gentes," "per coronam," "par la sainte figure de Dieu," "par la mort Dieu," etc.