IV. THE RISE OF MODERN WRITING It is impossible here to describe in detail the transformations which the Carolingian minuscule underwent at the hands of gen erations of clerks through the middle ages. The course of its development may be summarized in a few words. There are undeniable points of contact between architecture and palaeo graphy, and in both it is possible to distinguish a Romanesque and a Gothic period. The creative effort which began in the post Carolingian period culminated at the beginning of the 12th cen tury in a calligraphy and an architecture which, though still somewhat awkward, showed unmistakable signs of power and ex perience, and at the end of that century and in the first half of the 13th both arts reached their climax and made their boldest flights.
The topography of later mediaeval writing has hardly been in vestigated at all as yet. National varieties can, of course, be dis tinguished. The English Gothic cursive presents certain typical forms and a number of peculiarities of outline. In Germany, efforts have been made to tabulate the distinguishing features of local hands (Steinacker, Diplomatik and Landeskunde; Schubert, Eine Wacker Schriftprovinz, etc.). The problem becomes com plicated as a result of the development of international relations, and the migration of clerks from one end of Europe to the other (Hajnal, Irrastortenet az irasbeliseg felujulasa korabol, Budapest, 1921).
During the later centuries of the middle ages the Gothic minus cule continued to improve within the restricted circle of de luxe editions and ceremonial documents. In common use, it degen erated into a cursive which became more and more intricate, full of superfluous strokes and complicated by abbreviations.
In the first quarter of the 15th century an innovation took place which exercised a decisive influence on the evolution of writing in Europe. The Italian humanists were struck by the eminent legibility of the mss., written in the improved Caro lingian minuscule of the loth and Ilth centuries, in which they discovered the works of ancient authors, and carefully imitated the old writing. Their example was followed by many copyists. The papal chancery adopted the new fashion for some purposes, and thus contributed to its diffusion throughout Christendom. The printers played a still more significant part in establishing this form of writing by using it, from the year 1465, as the basis for their types. The humanistic minuscule soon gave rise to a sloping cursive hand, known as the Italian, which was also taken up by printers in search of novelty and thus became the italic type.
In consequence, the Italian hand became widely used, and in the i6th century began to compete with the Gothic cursive. In the 17th century, writing masters were divided between the two schools, and there was in addition a whole series of compromises. The Gothic characters gradually disappeared. A few survived until the middle of the 18th century, but since then, except in Germany, which has shown a persistent preference for the Gothic, the Italian has been universally used. Brought to perfection in recent times by English calligraphers, it is taught in schools everywhere under the name of English cursive.