Palestine

Internal Changes.

In the age of the Assyrian supremacy Palestine entered upon a series of changes, lasting for about three centuries (from about 740), which were of the greatest signifi cance for its internal development. The sweeping conquests of Assyria were "as critical for religious as for civil history" (Robert son Smith, Rel. of the Semite; p. 58). The brutal methods of warfare, the harsh treatment of vanquished districts or cities, and the redistribution of bodies of inhabitants, broke the old bonds uniting deities, people and land. The framework of society was shattered, communal life and religion were disorganized. As the flood poured over Syria and flowed south, Israel (Samaria) suf fered grievously, and the gaps caused by war and deportation were filled up by the introduction of new settlers by Sargon, and by his successors in the 7th century. Unfortunately, there is very little evidence in the biblical history for the subsequent career of Samaria; but it is clear that the old Israel of the dynasties of Omri and Jehu received crushing blows. The fact that among the new settlers were desert tribes, suggests the introduction, not merely of a simpler culture, but also of simpler groups of ideas. In the nature of the case, as time elapsed the new population must have taken root as securely as—one must conclude—the invading Israelites had done some centuries earlier. As a matter of fact the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel by no means regarded the popula tion lying to the north of Judah as strangers; there is hope of a reunion of the rival districts, indeed a new Israel—in the larger sense—was growing up. The north was ready to share the Judaean distress at the fall of Jerusalem (Jer. xli. 5), and in later years offered to assist in rebuilding Yahweh's temple. In fact, since the Samaritans subsequently accepted the Pentateuch, and claimed to inherit the ancestral traditions of the Israelite tribes, it is instructive to observe how this people of singularly mixed origin so thoroughly assimilated itself to the land and at first was vir tually a Jewish sect.

But Samaria was not the only land to suffer. Judah, towards the close of the 8th century, was obviously very closely bound up with Philistia, Edom and Egypt ; and this and Hezekiah's dealings with the anti-Assyrian party at Ekron do not indicate any feeling of national exclusiveness, or abhorrence of the "uncircumcised Philis tines." From the description of Sennacherib's invasion it is clear that social and economic conditions must have been seriously, per haps radically disturbed, and the quiescence of Judah during the next few decades implies an internal weakness and a submission to Assyrian supremacy. During the 7th century new movements

were coming from the Arabian desert ; and tribes growing ever more restless made an invasion east of the Jordan through Edom, Moab and Ammon. Although they were repulsed, this awakening of a land which has so often fed Palestine and Syria, when viewed with the increasing weakness of Assyria, and subsequent vicissi tudes in the history of the Edomites, Nabataeans and East Jordan tribes, forbids us to treat the invasion as an isolated raid. Later, the fall of the Judaean kingdom and the deportation of the leading classes brought a new social upheaval. The land was not denuded, and the fact that some scores of thousands of Jews remained in Judah through all the period of the exile (G. A. Smith, Jerusa lem, ii. 269), even though they were "the poorest of the land," revolutionizes ordinary notions of this period (see JEws, § 13). In the latter part of the 6th century we find some restoration, some revival of the old monarchy in the person of Zerubbabel (52o B.c.). But not until the middle of the 5th century do the biblical records (book of Nehemiah) furnish a foundation for any reconstruction. Here Jerusalem is in sore distress and in urgent need of reorganization. Zerubbabel's age is of the past, and any attempt to revive political aspirations is considered detrimental to the interests of the surrounding peoples and of the Persian Empire. Scattered evidence suggests that Edomites had been responsible for a new catastrophe. Amid internal and external difficulties Nehemiah proceeds to repair religious and social abuses, and there is an important return of exiles from Babylonia. The ruling classes are related partly to the families of semi-Edomite origin from south Judah and partly to Samaria ; but the kingship of old is replaced by a high-priest, and, under the influence of Babylonian Jews of the strictest principles, a breach was made between Judah and Samaria which was never healed. Biblical history itself recog nizes in the times of Artaxerxes, Nehemiah and Ezra the corn mencement of a new era; and although much remains obscure we have in these centuries vicissitudes which separate the old Pales tine of Egyptian, Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian supremacy from the land which was about to enter the orbit of Greek and Roman civilization.

Ancient History, vols. i.—iv., vi. (with bibliographies, esp. i. 635, iii. 734) see for the period before c. moo B.C., E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, i. ii.; Bilabel and Grohmann, Gesch. Vorderasiens in Agypten (Heidelberg, 1927— ). See also