Pamirs

The Murtagh Chain and Karakoram Extension.—The Murtagh chain, which holds within its grasp the mightiest system of glaciers in the world, forms a junction with the Sarikol at the head of the Taghdumbash, and also with the Hindu Kush. The political boundary between Kashmir and Sinkiang is carried by the Zarafshan or Raskam river to a point in about 79° 20' E. where it is transferred to the watershed of the Kuen Lun. Within the limits of these partially explored highlands, lying between the Pamirs and the Tibetan table-land, exact geographical definition is impossible. Godwin-Austen considers the main chain of the Murtagh to merge into the central system of the Tibetan Chang t'ang, its axis being defined and divided by the transverse stream of the Shyok at its westward bend ; whilst the Karakoram range, in which the Shyok rises, is a subsidiary northern branch. The pass over the Karakoram (18,50o ft.) is the most formidable obstacle on the main trade route between Leh (q.v.) and Kashgar.

The Taghdumbash Pamir.—The Taghdumbash Pamir oc cupies a geographical position of some political significance. One important pass (the Beyik, 15,100 ft.) leads from the Russian Pamirs into Sarikol across its northern border. A second pass (the Wakhjir, 16,15o ft.) connects the head of the Wakhan val ley of Afghanistan with the Sarikol province across its western head, whilst a third (the Kilik, 15,60o ft.) leads into the head of the Hunza river and opens a difficult and dangerous route to Gilgit.

Glacial Sources of the Oxus.—The true source of the Oxus probably lies in the snowfields of the Nicolas range and Lakes Chakmaktin (13,020 ft.) and Victoria (13,40o ft.) may be re garded as incidents, diminishing in volume day by day, in the course of glacial streams, rather than original springs or sources. The Nicolas glaciers also send down streams to the Panja or Wak han river, below its junction with the ice stream from Wakhjir.

Climate and Population.

What is known of the climate of the Pamirs is based on observations taken at Pamirski Post, on the Murghab river. The rainfall is that of the steppe regime, most rain falling in late spring and early summer. The air is re markably dry, especially in summer. The mean winter (January) temperature is — I°, and the mean summer temperature (July) 58°. A very strong south-west wind blows up the valleys by day throughout the year. There is much snow in the valley bottoms, but the ridges are snow free and without glaciers. At the height of 12,000 ft. the rainfall is only 2 in. per annum.

The population is mainly nomadic and includes a variety of "drifts" from various surrounding regions. The main element is usually called Pamiri, and is very broad-headed, with a white, fresh skin, often much bronzed, and abundant brown hair, inclined to be curly; the men have much face hair. The stature is slightly above the average (say 5 ft. 61 in.), the nose is narrow, prominent and straight or aquiline, the eyes are straight, as in Europeans, and may be light. Among the Pamiri tribes the purest are the mountaineers called Galchas. To the south are Dardi elements more related to the people of north-west India, but not usually with such extreme long heads as are found among the Rajputs and Sikhs. To the west occur the broad-headed Kirghiz, with

yellowish-white skin, usually bronzed, very broad heads, large cheekbones, rather narrow noses, dark eyes of European type, and a tendency to stoutness. The first, or Pamiri type is, in practically every feature, akin to the Alpini type of Europe. Some of the Pamiri peoples are nearly related to the gypsies. There are Jews in the towns below the Pamirs.

The Kirghiz are Sunni Mohammedans, but are said to retain traces of ancient Nestorian Christianity in their ritual practices, and it is thought that a Christian bishopric survived at Yarkand till about a century after its presence there was noted by Marco Polo. The last Gurkhan of the Kara Kitai Empire in the early 13th century (the legendary Prester John) was a member of a Christian tribe named Naiman, mentioned by Ney Elias and claiming kinship with the Kipchaks.

Through the Pamirs have passed famous trade routes, e.g., from Yarkand, via Tashkurgan and Rang Kul, to the stations in Turkistan north of the Oxus, or, via Tashkurgan and Lake Vic toria, to Badakshan, while the Buddhist pilgrim route from Yarkand, and other cities of Sinkiang, across the Baroghil pass to Chitral, is also of historic importance.

Exploration.

Native explorers from India first began to be busy in the Pamirs about 186o, and in 1874 the mission of Sir D. Forsyth to Yarkand led to the first systematic geographical exploitation of the Pamir country. In 1885 Ney Elias made his famous journey across the Pamirs from east to west, identifying the Rang Kul as the Dragon lake of Chinese geographers—a dis tinction which has also been claimed by some geographers for Lake Victoria. Lockhart and Woodthorpe in 1886 passed along the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus from its head to Ishkashim in Badakshan, and completed an enduring record of most excellent geographical research. Bonvalot in 1887, Littledale in 1888, Cum berland, Bower and Dauvergne, followed by Younghusband in succeeding years, extending to 189o; Dunmore in 1892 and Sven Hedin in have all contributed to Pamir geography; but the honours of successful inquiry in those high altitudes still fall to the late Lord Curzon, whose researches in 1894 led to a singu larly clear and comprehensive description of Pamir geography, as well as to the best map compilation made up to that time. Meanwhile Russian explorers and Russian topographers had been equally busy from the north. The famous soldier Skobelev was probably the first European to visit the Great Kara Kul. He was followed by scientific missions systematically organized by the Russian government. In 1883 Putiata's mission started south. Gromchevsky was hard at work from 1888 to 1892. Yano began again in 1891, after a short spell of rest, and has left his mark as a permanent record in the valley of Sarhad (or Wakhan), between the Baroghil pass and Bozai Gumbaz. Finally, in 1895, the Russian mission under General Shveikovsky met the British mission under General Gerard on the banks of Lake Victoria, and from that point to the Chinese frontier eastward demarcated the line which thereafter divided Russian from British interests in highest Asia.