Pius X. was not greatly interested in political affairs, but he had a valuable helper in this respect in his young and congenial secretary of State, Cardinal Merry del Val. As regards relations with official Italy, the Vatican and the Quirinal gradually estab lished a peaceful modus vivendi, although the pope had declared immediately after his election that the Church, as the foundation of Christ, must enjoy full and complete liberty. He qualified the absolute prohibition imposed by his predecessors against the participation of Catholics in political elections, and encouraged the non-political organization "Catholic Action" which aimed at educating the social, civic, moral and religious conscience of the Italian nation. He had much difficulty in his relations with France, "the eldest daughter of the Church," which adopted legis lation for the separation of Church and State (1905). He took a decisive part in the new settlement of ecclesiastical conditions. The new Republic of Portugal also carried out the separation of Church and State (19ii ). In Great Britain the Act of 19o9 gave Catholics full equality of rights with members of other denom inations.
The last circular issued by Pius X. was an appeal for peace addressed to the Catholics of the world on Aug. 2, 1914. He called on Catholics to pray that the flames of war might be ex tinguished, and that those who guided the destinies of States might cherish thoughts of peace. The "religious pope," as he has been justly called, died in poverty as he had lived, and is buried in a plain sarcophagus in the vaults of St. Peter's. He is revered by the people as a saint.
The archbishop of Bologna, Giacomo della Chiesa, known as Pope Benedict XV., was the great and distinguished priest-diplomatist in whom was bril liantly personified the mediaeval ruler's ideal—"Justitia et Pax" (justice and peace). From his exalted non-party position and with his spiritual authority over all nations, he left no stone unturned in his endeavours to arrest the appalling war spirit. He characterized as the four fundamental evils—and the reason for the severe disturbance of the orderly state of human society— the want of kindly love in the relations of mankind with one another, the contempt of authority, the iniquitous warfare of ranks and classes, the greedy hankering after transitory and perishable possessions. These evils must be uprooted, and only moreover by bringing once more into esteem the fundamental principles of Christianity. This pious pope composed an indi vidual prayer for peace, and proposed to the combatant nations a truce for Christmas 1914. Again and again, he exhorted them to desist from this mutual destruction mania, and to realize that nations do not die out, and that therefore rulers should weigh the rights and lawful aspirations of nations by direct or indirect exchange of opinion; for balance of power in the world depends much more on mutual well-wishing and on respect of the rights of others than on the number of men under arms, and on the strength of fortresses. The message of Benedict XV. of Aug. 1, 1917 to the heads of the States of the combatant nations consti tuted the climax of the papal efforts for peace. In this "as the
father of all, who loves all his children with equal affection" he proposed an honourable peace for all, whose durability would be guaranteed if the moral strength of justice were to take the place of the material strength of weapons, and international disputes were submitted to arbitration. At the same time this "pope of peace" accomplished deeds of the sublimest charity.
his intercession he ameliorated the lot of the prisoners of war, the wounded and the sick; he collected alms throughout the world with the zeal of a Franciscan mendicant friar for the poor and needy, irrespective of nationality and religion. In the midst of the tumult of war, the new book of Church laws, begun under Pius X. was completed (1917), in which the common laws of the Church are lucidly comprised in one. As a supporter of missionary affairs, Benedict emphasized in the great Encyclical Letter of 1919 the common missionary duty of all members of the Catholic Church—of the bishops, of the priests, of the laity, and he estab lished a training centre for the oriental Church in conjunction with the Oriental Institute in Rome, for the education of a home trained mission clergy. The war situation hindered the pope in free intercourse with the world. Against this ignoble situation, which arose from the want of an individual territorial property, he entered a protest, and demanded a solution of the so-called Roman question, which should guarantee the Holy See complete inde pendence of all temporal power.
Pius XI. was born on May 31, 1857, in Desio near Milan and was ordained on Dec. 20, 1879 in the Lateran Basilica in Rome. As head of the Ambrosian Library in Milan and of the Vatican Library, he gained the reputation of a brilliant scientific organizer and of a distinguished scholar, hon oured by all the world of culture. In addition to this, he was zealously active in the cure of souls. His love of nature led him in the summer holidays to the mountains where he sought bodily and spiritual refreshment. As apostolic visitor and subsequently papal nuncio in Poland, he gave proof of supreme impartiality and justice in the face of difficult conditions. Appointed cardinal archbishop of Milan in 1921 he managed this most difficult and biggest of Italian dioceses with inspired ability and with wise comprehension of the Church needs of a great modern city. These many-sided gifts, in addition to his eminent knowledge of lan guages, his clear penetrating discernment, his strong simple char acter and his high ideal conception of the priesthood, made Achille Ratti appear more suitable than any other to mount the papal throne. His election on Feb. 6, 1922 called forth universal satisfaction. (I. P. D.) With the words "Pius is a name of Peace, therefore I will bear it," Pius XI. began his rule, among the signs of the rebuilding of Europe after the prodigious shock of the World War. The mighty influx of pilgrims from all over the world to Rome in the Holy Year 1925, to whom the pope delivered impressive addresses in the familiar languages of their native countries, showed forcefully what unique prestige and what undisputed moral and cultural weight the papacy exerts.