In 1876 Ribot founded the Revue Philosophique, rivalling Bain who began the publication of Mind in the same year. In 1879 Ribot produced two small but valuable books on the historical development of English and German psychology. In 1888 he pub lished a study of Attention and this was followed by other monographs. By his writings Ribot did much to set psychology on the right road, partly by emphasising positive experimental work and partly by suggesting new points of view, such as the relation between emotion and memory. In 1889 a laboratory for psychological work was established at the Sorbonne. Its first director was Henri Beaunis who published in that year his book on Les Sensations Internes. Beaunis was a physiologist and his appointment was significant as indicating that psychology was to rank among the sciences. From this time onward there was rapid growth and expansion over the whole field. Richet, Grasset and others followed the more physiological lines. Pierre Janet opened a new era in pathological psychology. The study of character occupied a prominent place and was promoted by Perez (1892) Paulhan (1894) and Fouillee (1895). The psychology of society was treated by Gabriel Tarde in his work Lois de l'Imitation with a brilliance which attracted attention beyond the limits of France, and Gustav Le Bon secured an even more extensive reputation by his work on the psychology of crowds. The psychology of religion received attention in 1896 through the work of Recejac, followed by special studies in mysticism (1908, Delacroix), in primitive beliefs (Levy-Bruhl) and in the psychology of primitive societies (Durkheim). Every topic and every point of view now has a representative in France.
While French psychology is made famous by many brilliant names, the most famous product of the French school is the method of the intelligence tests known as the Binet-Simon test. Alfred Binet (1857-1911) began his active life when psychology had already passed out of the philosophical schools. In 1886 he collaborated with Fere to study animal magnetism and in 1887 he wrote on The Psychic Life of Micro-organisms. The Psychol ogie du Raisonnement (1886) initiated a series of studies on the functions of thought and will, and in 1892 a work on Alterations of Personality showed the tendency to abandon associationism for a more adequate view of mental activity. In 1894 Binet be came director of the Laboratory of the Sorbonne. In 1895 he began to develop work in individual psychology. The importance of this event lies in the fact that it involved a new conception of experimental work: the object was not so much to study isolated phenomena in the manner of Wundt as to correlate one aspect of mental life with others. This kind of work was specially useful in the problems of the schoolroom and the factory. In 190o Binet published the results of long research in a work entitled La Sug gestibilite: an earlier work (La fatigue intellectuelle, 1898) had been produced in collaboration with Victor Henri and these works showed the possibilities latent in the field of education. A laboratory for the study of pedagogical problems was founded in 1905. By good fortune the Government in 1904 decided to investigate the condition of mentally defective children in the schools. But there was no exact way of determining the status of a child : there was no exact formula by which to define the relations between the normal and the subnormal. The metric scale of intelligence was devised. As a first attempt it was, nat urally, imperfect. Various "revisions" have appeared from time to time and variations have been introduced to suit different con ditions. But the merit of being the original creator of tests belongs to Binet.
In Italy the course of development was similar to that in France. Positivism was influential in Italy be fore 1870 and found a champion in Roberto Ardigo. Though more a philosopher than a psychologist, Ardigo had a point of view which allied him with Spencer and he used his influence to promote what he regarded as the positive science of the soul. A more experimental line of work was initiated by Giuseppe Sergi at Rome. This type of psychology is predominantly physiological, has reference particularly to problems of physical and mental education, and has become widely known on account of its application in schools under the name of the Montessori method. Important work in the study of the bodily changes in fear and fatigue was done by Angelo Mosso, professor of physiology at Turin (La Paura, 1896; La Fatica, 1903). Francesco de Sarlo represents the influence of Wundt. He founded an Institute for Experimental Psychology at Florence and published among other works I dati dell'esperienza psichica (1903). Sancte de Sanctis
has made many valuable contributions to psychology beginning with a study of dreams (I sogni, 1899). The subject of criminal psychology was made the centre of extensive interest by the work of Lombroso (L'uomo delinquents, 1876). The idea of criminal types as used by Lombroso has not stood the test of later investi gations, but this branch of psychology owes its active progress to the beginning made by Lombroso.
Returning to the situation in England after 1880, we find a distinct type of psychology developed by James Ward (1843-1925). Ward represents a movement
influenced by German philosophy to reject associationism, but not drawn by that influence into either physiological or experi mental psychology. Ward's teaching was developed in a number of articles written between 1875 and 1886, but the first complete statement was presented in the article Psychology contributed to the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in 1886. It is a singular tribute to the worth and vitality of this article that it was reproduced, with no fundamental changes in 1918 as a book entitled Psychological Principles. Ward considered that the task of psychology is "to analyze and trace the development of indi vidual experience as it is for the experiencing individual." In fluenced largely by such writers as Leibniz and Lotze, with ade quate knowledge of Wundt and the contemporary biologists, Ward developed a psychology which was based on the concepts of a self and the continuity of development. The self as the subject of all experiences accounts for the unity of psychic life : it is active in the form of attention. The gradual development of the sense organs and the nervous system is accompanied by a development of the primary mental acts, the sensori-motor experiences. There is a succession of higher levels of activity as this original material becomes more complex; perception, memory and thought emerg ing as products of development. The interaction between subject and object is the general character of the process, but fresh pos sibilities are created by the forms of interaction between selves. The social factor in psychology was given a particular significance by Ward as the medium by which the process of mental develop ment reaches its highest level. The school to which Ward belongs is known as the "self-psychologists," because the distinctive feat ure of their method is the assertion of a "self" as subject and the use of introspection as the chief source of information. The origin of this school was in the work of Brentano (Psychologie yam, empirisclien Standpunkte, 1874). Brentano, a neo-scholastic writer, opposed all tendencies toward either physiological theories or the idea of the subconscious. He accepted the view that the "soul" is the same as the acts called psychic phenomena and that these phenomena can be directly observed : observation of others, of children, animals and abnormal types can also be used. The influence of Brentano (and Herbart) is seen in the works of G. F. Stout. namely Analytic Psychology (1896), Manual of Psychology (1898) and Groundwork of Psychology (1903). As a study of the structure and processes of the mind the Analytic Psychology has taken rank among the classics of modern British psychology. The other works have been among the most influential text-books of recent times. There is a strong likeness between the work of Stout and Ward's standpoint. Both present a pure psychology supported chiefly by direct inspection of mental processes, rich in fine distinctions and acute observations. The value of this work is not disparaged by admitting that modern psychology has passed beyond its limitations. In some respects there is a more modern quality in the works of James Sully. In 1874 he published a work on Sensation and Intuition: in 1884 the Outlines of Psychology appeared: the Teacher's Handbook (1886) reached a fifth edition in 1909: the most complete exposition was given in The Human Mind in 1892. Sully was more like Bain than Ward. He had a gift for accumulating data without much inclination to give them the form of a philosophical system. Separate studies on Illusions 0880 and Laughter (1902) showed the author's tendency toward the experimental method and the viewpoint of the natural sciences. Sully also felt the importance of making psychology applicable to practice. He followed the example of Herbart and Bain in making psychology a part of the education of teachers. He wrote Studies of Childhood (1895) and founded the British Association for Child Study.