Pola

Fauna.—The indigenous fauna of Poland has disappeared in historical times. The reindeer, the sable and the wild horse sur vive in tradition. The aurochs or bison, preserved in the great Bialowiei forest, disappeared in 1918. The elk is heard of in the north-east, and the beaver, once so common, is found only in the marshes of Polesie. The chamois and marmot are found in the Tatra mountains, while the Carpathians still form a refuge for the bear, the wild cat, the lynx, the badger and the wild boar. Other wise the bear and wolf are uncommon except in the north-east. The fox is ubiquitous, while the marten, polecat, etc., are not un common. The avifauna is similar to that of central Europe, and is slightly to westward of the most frequented route of the migratory birds in Russia.

Population.

The population of Poland in 1931 was 31, In 1936 it was estimated at 33,823,00o.

The detailed population returns for 1931 are shown in the subjoined table :— In regard to population Poland occupies sixth place among the countries of Europe, coming after Russia, Germany, Great Britain, France and Italy. The chief feature of recent years has been the movement of the rural population to the towns, of which 51 now have a population of over 25,000. The largest towns are Warsaw, the capital, with 1,178,211 inhabitants in 1931; Lodz, with 605, Lemberg, with 316,177; Poznan, with 246,698; Cracow, with 221,260; and Vilna, with 196,345. The population is most dense in the industrial areas of Silesia, Lodz and Warsaw, and in the fertile agricultural districts of Cracow, Lemberg, Tarnopol and Kielce; but it is far more scattered in the eastern provinces.

According to nationalities the population was made up as fol lows in 1921:— The constitution of the new Polish State left over two million Poles in the neighbouring countries—Russia, Germany and Czechoslovakia—while some three millions have emigrated to France, Brazil and the United States.

In Poland the Poles form over two-thirds of the population, constituting the great mass of the inhabitants of all the western and central provinces, with a large German minority in Silesia and small minorities of Germans in Poznan and Pomorze. The Poles are in a minority in the Ruthenian provinces of Stanislawow, Tarnopol, Volhynia and Polesie, while the nationality of the White Russians of Vilna and Nowogrodek is a matter of dispute, those who are Catholics being claimed as Poles. The Jews are scattered over the whole territory, being particularly numerous in Warsaw and Lodz and in the towns of the eastern provinces.

With the exception of the Kashubes of Pomorze, who are a relic of the old Pomeranians, the Polish people form one ethnological group. Certain peculiarities of geography or history give local differences to the Mazovians, who are well built, sturdy folk, drab in costume, tenacious of their ancient customs, democratic and great colonists; to the GOrale or highlanders of the Carpathians; to the Kurpie of the Narew basin; and to the Poles of Silesia. But

the attempts of hostile politicians to claim wide differences of dialect and custom have not been justified. The Poles are more uniform in language and customs than any other great nation.

The economic organization of this territory by a political unit was kept in suspense, after 1918, until some definite basis could be created both for external and internal relations. In foreign affairs the essential preliminary of defined frontiers was not ob tained until the defeat of the Bolshevist armies, in Aug. 1920, had been crowned by the Treaty of Riga (March 1921), and not put beyond question until Polish Upper Silesia was taken over in July 1922. At home a Constitution and Administration had to be created in the midst of the war with the Bolshevists, and the dam ages of the World War repaired.

Agriculture.

Although industry has developed rapidly in Poland, agriculture is still the predominant occupation of her population, 65% of whom earn their living by the cultivation of the soil. The World War caused such devastation in all parts of Poland except the western provinces, that agriculture received a blow from which it has but recently recovered. It is estimated that 500,00o habitable wooden buildings and 1,248,000 agricultural buildings were destroyed, of which from 65 to 72% have been reconstructed. It must be remembered that the war in Poland lasted till 1921. The second great influence on Polish agrarian conditions was the Russian revolution, which caused the Polish Government to make wide promises of land to peasants and ex service men, such as were made in all central Europe. The Agra rian Act of 1920 was modified in 1925. It establishes a great area of land to be devoted to agrarian reform and parcellation among the peasants. This consists, firstly, of the vast State domains taken over from the Governments of Russia, Prussia and Austria; sec ondly, of ecclesiastical lands and lands owned by public institu tions; thirdly, of all other estates of an area larger than 4441 ac. (9884 ac. in Volhynia, Polesie and Nowogrodek) in the country, and 148 ac. in urban or industrial areas. Peasant appropriations have gone steadily forward. The total area of land reallocated in accordance with the provisions of this Act amounted to 200,000 hectares in 1926 and 300,00o hectares in 1927. Speaking generally, the position of the peasant is good, while that of the large land owner is much better than seemed likely in 1920.