Prison

Imprisonment when introduced was both punitive and ref orma tory, designed to produce a mode of life markedly different from that led outside in the state of freedom; otherwise imprisonment would scarcely be punitive and painful. Mr. Osborne's plan was a humane effort to make the prison a school for social re-educa tion. The more advanced criminologists would reconstruct pri sons, making them hospitals for the socially sick or delinquent classes putting them under medical supervision comparable to the State hospitals for the insane. The prisons of the United States are to-day (1929) substantially what they were in 1830, as regards both architecture and disciplinary methods. There have been some improvements in construction and sanitation, but the old punitive system remains almost unimpaired, and any attempt to improve or mitigate it is attacked by the conservative judges and lawyers as a sentimental effort to coddle prisoners. Contem porary prison discipline is not supported by criminologists, and in time the system will change before the advance of knowledge. In October, 1933, Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay was assigned by the Federal authorities for use as a prison. There is accommodation for about 600 prisoners. (H. E. BAR.) A new chapter in the development of the prison regime has been opened in many countries in the years following 1918. There is on the European continent a certain movement away from the strict cellular system, where prisoners are separated entirely and all the time from one another, to a system of pro gressive stages, similar to the system in use in English prisons.

Austria.—Longer terms of punishment are undergone in dif ferent grades. The governor decides in his free discretion whether a prisoner is worthy to enter the next higher grade or not. There is no earning "marks." Only a small proportion of the prisoners is held in strict isolation; the bulk live and labour together. Prisoners of the highest grade are often occupied with work out side the prison, such as road building and farm work.

Belgium.—For decades the stronghold of the strictest cellular system, Belgium has recently acceded to some partial alterations. Prisoners, who are fit, still serve generally the first ten years of their sentence in strict isolation; but io% of the prison popula tion are working together. The "hood," meant to prevent the prisoners from seeing one another's face, is no longer compulsory. In one of the prisons part of the individual exercise yards has been pulled down. Remarkable efforts are made to individualize punishment. Nine anthropological laboratones have been created. There the offender is given a thorough physical and psychical analysis. The result is used to adapt the prison treatment as far as possible to the special need of the individual.

France.—Imprisonment up to 1 year is undergone in isolation as far as prison buildings permit. Longer sentences are served in common during day time, but separation during the night is aimed at. Recidivists and criminals sentenced to severe punish ment are liable to transportation into the penal colonies.

Germany.—An agreement in 1923 between the different states of the German Republic has been an important step towards entire unification of the prison system which is not reached yet. Ger many has adopted the progressive system. Complete isolation is limited to 3 years. Prisoners convicted for mere political crimes, not arising from dishonorable motives, are to be kept in separate places of detention. There they enjoy practically every

possible liberty and privilege.

Greece.—Greece has made considerable attempts in the period since the World War to develop a system of out-door labour for trustworthy prisoners, regardless of the length of the sentence to be served. Besides a few movable prison camps there were in 1928 four farm prisons. The moral influence of farming, road building and forest work on the prisoner is highly commended by the Government.

Holland.—Prisoners are kept in cellular separation for a period of not more than 5 years. There is a careful elimination of criminals who are for one reason or another unfit for the cellular regime. Corporal punishment for disciplinary purposes is pro vided but never used.

Italy.

Italy has a progressive system which starts with isola tion of the prisoner for the first part of his sentence. He is com pelled to earn a certain amount of "marks" in order to advance from one grade to the next one. In certain cases an intermediate prison with a sort of semi-liberty has to be passed through before final liberation. Irons are still in use as a disciplinary punishment. Poland.—The prison regime was reformed basically in 1928. A progressive system, following the English example, is now in use. Strict cellular separation does not exist at all. A list of stimulating privileges, lectures and wireless performances of edu cational value are introduced to assist reformation. Russia.—Attempts have been made in Russia to change the whole system of punishment into one of reformation and social protection. Even the name "punishment" has been eliminated. Prisons are gradually replaced by penal colonies where life in a free community is copied as far as possible. Prisoners in higher grades get a vacation of one or two weeks a year. Farmers who are imprisoned are able to get harvest leave up to 4 months. Political prisoners, on the other hand, are subject to a different, more severe, prison regime.

Sweden.—The penal system was reformed in 1921. A pro gressive system starts with cellular separation up to the first 3 years. A bigger cell for work besides the sleeping-cell is provided in many cases for prisoners in isolation. There are a few penal farms intended to be a link between prison and liberty for the promising prisoner. Three to four prisoners may sleep in one room in these farms. Corporal punishment is provided but strictly guarded against abuse.

Switzerland.—The different small cantons still rule the prison system, and there is as yet no unification. But there is a move ment towards the development of farm-prisons following the example of the famous farm-prison at Witzwil in the canton of Berne. (E. M. F.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J Howard, State of the Prisons in England and Wales (2 pts., 1777) ; J. Bentham, Letter to Lord Pelham (1802) ; B. C. Thomson, Story of Dartmoor Prison (1907) ; R. Saleilles, The Individualisation of Punishment, trans. R. S. Jastrow 0910 ; • G. Ives, History of Penal Methods (1914); C. Goring, The English Convict (1915) ; E. Ruggles-Brise, English Prison System (1921) and Prison Reform at Home and Abroad (1924) ; S. A. Mosely, The Convict of To-day (1927) ; T. W. Trought, Probation in Europe (1927) ; Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Prisons Under Local Government (1922) ; S. Hobhouse and A. F. Brockway, English Prisons To-day (5922). See also The Annual Report of the Commissioners of Prisons and the Journal and Annual Report of the Howard League. See bibliographies of HOWARD; LOMBROSO.